Men remain overrepresented in leadership positions, due in part to a think manager–think male (TMTM) association whereby stereotypes of men are more similar to stereotypes of manager than are stereotypes of women. Building on research into the motherhood penalty and fatherhood advantage, we extend Schein's TMTM paradigm to investigate whether parenthood exacerbates the phenomenon. In Study 1 (N = 326), we find clear support for a fatherhood advantage, such that fathers are described as more similar to managers compared to either men in general, women in general, or to mothers. We did not find evidence for a motherhood penalty. Indeed, mothers, compared to women in general, were seen as more similar to managers (a motherhood advantage within women), while relative to fathers, mothers were seen as less similar to managers, thus, a gender penalty remained within parenthood. We replicate these findings in a preregistered Study 2 (N = 561), and further show that patterns are similar for ideal managers (prescriptive manager stereotypes, Study 1) and leaders more generally (Study 2). Taken together, the results suggest that gender and managerial stereotypes do not reveal a simple fatherhood advantage and motherhood penalty. Rather, stereotypes of parenthood may provide benefits for both mothers and fathers—suggestive of a parenthood advantage, at least in terms of stereotype content.

中文翻译：

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思想管理者-想父母吗？使用Think Manager-Think Male范式调查父亲的优势和母亲的惩罚

男性在领导职位上的任职人数仍然过高，部分原因是思想管理者-思考男性（TMTM）协会，即男性的刻板印象与女性的刻板印象更像是经理的刻板印象。在对孕产惩罚和父亲优势的研究的基础上，我们扩展了舍因的TMTM范式，以研究父母是否加剧了这一现象。在研究1（N  = 326）中，我们发现父亲身份的优势得到了明确的支持，因此与男性，女性或母亲相比，父亲与经理人的关系更加相似。我们没有找到有关惩罚母亲的证据。实际上，与一般妇女相比，母亲被认为更多类似于管理者（女性在母亲中享有优势），而相对于父亲而言，母亲被认为与管理者不太相似，因此，性别歧视仍然存在于父母中。我们在预先注册的研究2（N  = 561）中复制了这些发现，并进一步表明，理想管理者（规定性经理刻板印象，研究1）和领导者（更广泛地研究）（研究2）的模式相似。两者合计，结果表明，性别和管理上的陈规定型观念并没有显示出简单的父亲优势和母亲惩罚。相反，刻板印象可能会为父母双方带来好处—至少在刻板印象方面，这暗示了父母的优势。