The impact of ecosystem disservices is among the issues that farmers have to consider in management of livelihoods and local landscapes. We investigated distinct practices developed within local communities in tree–crop integration and strategies to offset disservices. Forty-eight transects (24 at ≤1 km and 24 at ≥3 km from forest edges) were laid in the study sites. Woody and crop species were recorded from a total of 150 homegardens and farm fields along the 48 transects. In addition, farmers (n = 384) were interviewed using a semistructured questionnaire to assess their land-use practices and management strategies to counter ecosystem disservices. Data were analyzed using a linear mixed effects model of the statistical program R. A total of 72 woody and crop species belonging to 40 families were recorded. The mean number of woody species increased near to the forest. Wild mammals, such as olive baboons, bush pigs, warthogs, vervet monkeys, and porcupines were common crop raiders. Farmers used fences, guarding, noise, scare devices, and smoke to scare away crop-raiding animals. To protect beehives in the forest fragments, they have developed indigenous skills such as dusting ashes, spraying indigenous repellant suspensions, and destroying the nests of raiding ants. A biological control mechanism was also used by farmers where they cut part of the nest of Crematogaster sp. (locally called “Penie”) and glue it onto the trunk of trees with beehives. Crematogaster sp. safeguard the beehives from raiding ants as part of their efforts to protect their own nests. We recommend both ecological and socioeconomic studies in order to augment farmers’ strategies to balance disservices and corresponding management practices across the landscapes.

中文翻译：

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邻近森林的收益与成本之间的折衷：农民在林木整合和生态系统损害管理方面的实践和策略

生态系统损害的影响是农民在生计和当地景观管理中必须考虑的问题之一。我们调查了当地社区在树种整合方面的独特实践以及抵消危害的策略。在研究地点放置了48个样点（距森林边缘≤1km处有24个样面，距森林边缘≥3 km处有24个样面）。沿48个样带记录的总共150个家庭花园和农田记录了木本和农作物物种。此外，还使用半结构化问卷对农民（n = 384）进行了访谈，以评估他们的土地使用实践和管理策略以应对生态系统损害。使用统计程序R的线性混合效应模型分析数据。总共记录了属于40个科的72种木质和农作物物种。靠近森林的木本物种平均数量增加。野生哺乳动物，如橄榄狒狒，丛林猪，疣猪，黑长尾猴和豪猪，是常见的农作物袭击者。农民用围栏，防护装置，噪音，恐吓设备和烟熏来吓跑农作物。为了保护森林碎片中的蜂箱，他们开发了本机技能，例如撒粉灰，喷洒本机驱虫剂悬浮液并摧毁蚂蚁的巢穴。农民还使用了一种生物控制机制，在该处他们切割了Crematogaster sp。巢的一部分。（在当地称为“ Penie”），然后用蜂箱将其粘贴到树木的树干上。Crematogaster sp。保护蜂箱免遭蚂蚁袭击，这是他们保护自己的巢穴的一部分。