Land reclamation and drainage networks represent one of the most ancient human modifications of the Italian soilscape, where tailored land set-up systems were developed in agroand forestecosystems in three millennia of man’s activity. Most of once manually maintained land settings are currently scarcely working or even disappeared because of the cost needed for their maintenance and the advent of mechanization that have simplified the field organization. The scarce attention to the soil experienced in the last decades, has accelerated soil erosion and flooding events, which entailed high costs in terms of money and human lives, but also caused reduction of soil thickness, water holding capacity, and fertility. In view of a sustainable agriculture, it is mandatory to assess the role of land set-up systems, which for centuries have been key in protecting soil from erosion, but also in increasing soil fertility. Such an effort cannot be made without considering the different pedo-climatic conditions and land uses of the Italian territory, which is different with respect to the past because of the multiple transformations made to favour the mechanization of agriculture. In this review we discuss the main effect of Italian land settings on the soilscape and on soil physicochemical conditions. Since land settings were developed centuries ago, detailed information about their effect on specific soil parameters is scarce in the scientific literature; thus, in some case, we provide information gathered in places where land set-up systems are still present. Introduction Land reclamation and drainage networks represent one of the most ancient human modifications of the landscape made with the aim to increase crop yield or to preserve forest functionality through the improvement of soil physical, chemical, and biological conditions and the reduction of the water erosion (Landi, 1999; Corti et al., 2013; Sofia et al., 2014). In the Italian soilscape, pedoclimatic regions and land set-up systems result from interactions among factors like geology, morphology, climate, vegetation, soil management, and land use (Corti et al., 2013; Costantini et al., 2013). Therefore, the various agroand forest-ecosystems generated by the combination of natural and human factors in three millennia of man’s activity in the Italian territory, different land setup systems were developed. Roughly, four main plans of interventions have been designed on the base of the principal necessities: i) in mountain and hilly environments with moderate to steep slopes, soils are affected by water runoff and accelerated erosion and, in time, land settings able to favour both water infiltration and soil protection were designed; ii) in plain territories with lithology dominated by fine sediments, soils are generally affected by excess of water and people have developed drainage and hydraulic land settings to ensure rapid water discharge and soil aeration; iii) in areas affected by aridity, which are particularly diffused in southern Italy, land settings and dry-farming systems able to preserve water in the sub-soil are required; iv) in the whole country, even though at a lower level of engineering development, also forest environments were provided of land settings able to reduce soil erosion, mainly on steep slopes. Unfortunately, especially in the agro-ecosystems, most of once manually maintained land settings are nowadays scarcely working or even disappeared because of the cost needed for their maintenance and the advent of mechanization. Yet, in the last decades, flooding events have represented an increasing threat for both farmers and downstream communities of the country, with high costs in terms of money and human lives. Among the reasons considered responsible for these even more frequent events, the reduction of the time of concentration due to the increase of runoff certainly plays an important role. This phenomenon is then associated with accelerated soil erosion, which is responsible to reduce soil thickness and, consequently, water holding capacity and soil fertility, so triggering a negative feedback that hold the soils in an early stage of evolution (Entisols, according to the SSS, 2014). In effect, the so called ‘Entisolization’ has been considered one of the most modern soil threats, also able to decrease both pedodiversity and biodiversity (Lo Papa et al., 2011; Dazzi and Lo Papa, 2013). However, we have no experimental data concerning soil loss before 1950s, when land settings and soil preservation techniques were implemented, and soil conservation received more attention Correspondence: Valeria Cardelli, Department of Agricultural, Food and Environmental Sciences, Università Politecnica delle Marche, Via Brecce Bianche 10, 60131 Ancona (AN), Italy. E-mail: v.cardelli@staff.univpm.it

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土地设置系统对土壤（物理化学）条件的作用

土地开垦和排水网络代表了意大利土壤景观最古老的人类改造之一，在人类活动的三千年中，在农业和森林生态系统中开发了量身定制的土地设置系统。由于维护所需的成本以及简化了现场组织的机械化的出现，大多数曾经手动维护的土地设置目前几乎无法使用甚至消失。过去几十年对土壤缺乏关注，加速了土壤侵蚀和洪水事件，这在金钱和人命方面带来了高昂的成本，但也导致土壤厚度、持水能力和肥力下降。鉴于可持续农业，必须评估土地设置系统的作用，几个世纪以来，这一直是保护土壤免受侵蚀的关键，也是提高土壤肥力的关键。如果不考虑意大利领土不同的土壤气候条件和土地用途，就不能做出这样的努力，因为有利于农业机械化的多重转变，意大利领土与过去不同。在这篇综述中，我们讨论了意大利土地环境对土壤景观和土壤物理化学条件的主要影响。由于土地环境是在几个世纪前开发的，关于它们对特定土壤参数影响的详细信息在科学文献中很少见；因此，在某些情况下，我们会提供在仍然存在土地设置系统的地方收集的信息。引言 土地开垦和排水网络代表了人类对景观最古老的改造之一，其目的是通过改善土壤物理、化学和生物条件以及减少水蚀来提高作物产量或保护森林功能（ Landi，1999 年；Corti 等人，2013 年；Sofia 等人，2014 年）。在意大利的土壤景观中，土壤气候区和土地构造系统是地质、形态、气候、植被、土壤管理和土地利用等因素之间相互作用的结果（Corti 等人，2013 年；Costantini 等人，2013 年）。因此，在意大利领土上三千年的人类活动中，自然和人为因素结合产生的各种农业和森林生态系统，开发了不同的土地设置系统。大致，根据主要需要设计了四个主要的干预计划：i) 在中等至陡坡的山区和丘陵环境中，土壤受到水径流和加速侵蚀的影响，并且随着时间的推移，土地环境能够有利于这两种水设计了渗透和土壤保护；ii) 在岩性以细粒沉积物为主的平原地区，土壤通常受到过多水的影响，人们已经开发了排水和水力土地环境，以确保快速排水和土壤通气；iii) 在受干旱影响的地区，特别是在意大利南部蔓延的地区，需要能够保存地下土壤水分的土地环境和旱作系统；iv) 在整个国家，即使处于较低的工程发展水平，森林环境也提供了能够减少土壤侵蚀的土地环境，主要是在陡坡上。不幸的是，尤其是在农业生态系统中，由于维护所需的成本和机械化的出现，大多数曾经人工维护的土地环境现在几乎无法使用甚至消失。然而，在过去的几十年里，洪水事件对该国的农民和下游社区构成了越来越大的威胁，在金钱和人命方面造成了高昂的代价。在被认为对这些更频繁的事件负责的原因中，由于径流增加而导致集中时间的减少当然起着重要作用。这种现象随后与加速的土壤侵蚀有关，这导致土壤厚度减少，因此，持水能力和土壤肥力，从而引发负反馈，使土壤处于进化的早期阶段（Entisol，根据 SSS，2014 年）。实际上，所谓的“土壤化”被认为是最现代的土壤威胁之一，也能够减少土壤多样性和生物多样性（Lo Papa 等，2011；Dazzi 和 Lo Papa，2013）。然而，在 1950 年代之前，我们没有关于土壤流失的实验数据，当时实施了土地设置和土壤保持技术，土壤保护受到更多关注 通讯：Valeria Cardelli，农业、食品和环境科学系，马尔凯理工大学，Via Brecce Bianche 10, 60131 安科纳 (AN), 意大利。电子邮箱：v.cardelli@staff.univpm.it 因此触发了负面反馈，使土壤处于进化的早期阶段（Entisol，根据 SSS，2014 年）。实际上，所谓的“土壤化”被认为是最现代的土壤威胁之一，也能够减少土壤多样性和生物多样性（Lo Papa 等，2011；Dazzi 和 Lo Papa，2013）。然而，在 1950 年代之前，我们没有关于土壤流失的实验数据，当时实施了土地设置和土壤保持技术，土壤保护受到更多关注 通讯：Valeria Cardelli，农业、食品和环境科学系，马尔凯理工大学，Via Brecce Bianche 10, 60131 安科纳 (AN), 意大利。电子邮箱：v.cardelli@staff.univpm.it 因此触发了负面反馈，使土壤处于进化的早期阶段（Entisol，根据 SSS，2014 年）。实际上，所谓的“土壤化”被认为是最现代的土壤威胁之一，也能够减少土壤多样性和生物多样性（Lo Papa 等，2011；Dazzi 和 Lo Papa，2013）。然而，在 1950 年代之前，我们没有关于土壤流失的实验数据，当时实施了土地设置和土壤保持技术，土壤保护受到更多关注 通讯：Valeria Cardelli，农业、食品和环境科学系，马尔凯理工大学，Via Brecce Bianche 10, 60131 安科纳 (AN), 意大利。电子邮箱：v.cardelli@staff.univpm.it 所谓的“土壤化”被认为是最现代的土壤威胁之一，也能够减少土壤多样性和生物多样性（Lo Papa 等，2011；Dazzi 和 Lo Papa，2013）。然而，在 1950 年代之前，我们没有关于土壤流失的实验数据，当时实施了土地设置和土壤保持技术，土壤保护受到更多关注 通讯：Valeria Cardelli，农业、食品和环境科学系，马尔凯理工大学，Via Brecce Bianche 10, 60131 安科纳 (AN), 意大利。电子邮箱：v.cardelli@staff.univpm.it 所谓的“土壤化”被认为是最现代的土壤威胁之一，也能够减少土壤多样性和生物多样性（Lo Papa 等，2011；Dazzi 和 Lo Papa，2013）。然而，在 1950 年代之前，我们没有关于土壤流失的实验数据，当时实施了土地设置和土壤保持技术，土壤保护受到更多关注 通讯：Valeria Cardelli，农业、食品和环境科学系，马尔凯理工大学，Via Brecce Bianche 10, 60131 安科纳 (AN), 意大利。电子邮箱：v.cardelli@staff.univpm.it 当土地设置和土壤保持技术得到实施，土壤保持受到更多关注 通讯：Valeria Cardelli，农业、食品和环境科学系，马尔凯理工大学，Via Brecce Bianche 10，60131 Ancona (AN)，意大利。电子邮箱：v.cardelli@staff.univpm.it 当土地设置和土壤保持技术得到实施，土壤保持受到更多关注 通讯：Valeria Cardelli，农业、食品和环境科学系，马尔凯理工大学，Via Brecce Bianche 10，60131 Ancona (AN)，意大利。电子邮箱：v.cardelli@staff.univpm.it