Oxidative (OS), reductive (RS), and nitrosative (NSS) stresses produce carbonylation, glycation, glutathionylation, sulfhydration, nitration, and nitrosylation reactions. OS, RS, and NSS are interrelated since RS results from an overactivation of antioxidant systems and NSS is the result of the overactivation of the oxidation of nitric oxide (NO). Here, we discuss the general characteristics of the three types of stress and the way by which the reactions they induce (a) damage the DNA structure causing strand breaks or inducing the formation of 8-oxo-d guanosine; (b) modify histones; (c) modify the activities of the enzymes that determine the establishment of epigenetic cues such as DNA methyl transferases, histone methyl transferases, acetyltransferases, and deacetylases; (d) alter DNA reparation enzymes by posttranslational mechanisms; and (e) regulate the activities of intracellular enzymes participating in metabolic reactions and in signaling pathways through posttranslational modifications. Furthermore, the three types of stress may establish new epigenetic marks through these reactions. The development of cardiometabolic disorders in adult life may be programed since early stages of development by epigenetic cues which may be established or modified by OS, RS, and NSS. Therefore, the three types of stress participate importantly in mediating the impact of the early life environment on later health and heritability. Here, we discuss their impact on cardiometabolic diseases. The epigenetic modifications induced by these stresses depend on union and release of chemical residues on a DNA sequence and/or on amino acid residues in proteins, and therefore, they are reversible and potentially treatable.

中文翻译：

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氧化，还原和硝化胁迫作用对表观遗传和心脏代谢疾病中酶的翻译后修饰的影响

氧化（OS），还原（RS）和亚硝化（NSS）应力会产生羰基化，糖基化，谷胱甘肽基化，巯基化，硝化和亚硝基化反应。OS，RS和NSS是相互关联的，因为RS是抗氧化剂系统过度活化的结果，而NSS是一氧化氮（NO）氧化过度活化的结果。在这里，我们讨论了三种应力的一般特征以及它们引起的反应的方式（a）破坏DNA结构，导致链断裂或诱导8-oxo-d鸟苷的形成；（b）修改组蛋白；（c）改变决定表观遗传线索建立的酶的活性，例如DNA甲基转移酶，组蛋白甲基转移酶，乙酰基转移酶和脱乙酰基酶；（d）通过翻译后机制改变DNA修复酶；（e）通过翻译后修饰来调节参与代谢反应和信号传导途径的细胞内酶的活性。此外，三种类型的压力可能通过这些反应建立新的表观遗传标记。自从发育的早期阶段通过表观遗传线索就可以对成人代谢性心脏病的发展进行编程，该表观遗传线索可以由OS，RS和NSS建立或修改。因此，三种类型的压力在调节早期生活环境对后来的健康和遗传力的影响中起重要作用。在这里，我们讨论它们对心脏代谢疾病的影响。由这些压力诱导的表观遗传修饰取决于DNA序列和/或蛋白质中氨基酸残基的化学残基的结合和释放，因此，