As urbanisation pressures on ecosystems are set to increase, trade-offs between ecosystem service are also likely to increase. Management strategies that minimise trade-offs and promote sustainable development to optimise ecosystem multi-functionality are therefore needed. Many coastal cities may however struggle to find the resources and capacity to operationalise ecosystem service agendas. Therefore, the objective of this study is to propose and test the suitability of a multi-functional landscape approach to ecosystem service assessments using the case study of Singapore, with focus on five ecosystem services: water and air pollution control, global climate, local temperature and recreational potential services. Our results show clear heterogeneity in the capacity of mangroves to supply different ecosystem services, with a general tendency for greater amounts of supply in larger mangrove patches, and for ecosystem services to aggregate producing hotspots of supply. Overall, a 24% of the mangrove landscape supported aggregations of at least one, two or three ecosystem services, but only <1% of the mangrove landscape supporting overlapping aggregations of all five services. Ecosystem services also co-varied to produce trade-offs and synergies, with ecosystem service bundling largely driven by regulating services. Areas of ecosystem service synergy and hotsport overlap represent possible priority areas of future conservation or management, and highlight what might be lost if significant degradation were allowed to occur. Further, the large spatial mismatch among ecosystem service hotspots also highlights the difficulty in identifying single areas capable of delivering substantial amounts of multiple ecosystem services. We conclude that this framework provides a basis to look at ecosystem services in combination, as well as individually, and to do so in a spatially explicit manner than can be overlaid with maps of land use or other development planning.

随着城市化对生态系统的压力越来越大，生态系统服务之间的权衡也可能会增加。因此，需要使权衡最小化并促进可持续发展以优化生态系统多功能性的管理策略。但是，许多沿海城市可能很难找到资源和能力来实施生态系统服务议程。因此，本研究的目的是使用新加坡的案例研究，提出并检验多功能景观方法在生态系统服务评估中的适用性，重点是五种生态系统服务：水和空气污染控制，全球气候，当地温度和娱乐潜在服务。我们的结果表明，红树林提供不同生态系统服务的能力存在明显的异质性，总体趋势是，在较大的红树林地带有更多的供应量，而生态系统服务则聚集了生产热点。总体而言，有24％的红树林景观支持至少一种，两种或三种生态系统服务的聚合，但只有不到1％的红树林景观支持所有五种服务的重叠聚合。生态系统服务也可以协力产生取舍和协同作用，而生态系统服务捆绑在很大程度上是由调节服务驱动的。生态系统服务协同作用和热运动重叠区域代表着未来保护或管理的可能优先领域，并突出了如果允许发生重大退化可能造成的损失。进一步，生态系统服务热点之间的巨大空间失配也凸显了确定能够提供大量多种生态系统服务的单个区域的困难。我们得出的结论是，该框架为组合和单独研究生态系统服务提供了基础，并且以空间明确的方式（而不是土地使用图或其他发展规划所覆盖的方式）进行研究。