Modern subunit vaccines are composed of antigens and a delivery system and/or adjuvant (immune stimulator) that triggers the desired immune responses. Adjuvants mimic pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) that are typically associated with infections. Carbohydrates displayed on the surface of pathogens are often recognized as PAMPs by receptors on antigen-presenting cells (APCs). Consequently, carbohydrates and their analogues have been used as adjuvants and delivery systems to promote antigen transport to APCs. Carbohydrates are biocompatible, usually nontoxic, biodegradable, and some are mucoadhesive. As such, carbohydrates and their derivatives have been intensively explored for the development of new adjuvants. This review assesses the immunological functions of carbohydrate ligands and their ability to enhance systemic and mucosal immune responses against co-administered antigens. The role of carbohydrate-based adjuvants/delivery systems in the development of subunit vaccines is discussed in detail.

中文翻译：

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亚单位疫苗中的碳水化合物免疫佐剂

现代亚单位疫苗由抗原和引发所需免疫反应的递送系统和/或佐剂（免疫刺激剂）组成。佐剂模仿通常与感染相关的病原体相关分子模式（PAMP）。病原体表面展示的碳水化合物通常被抗原呈递细胞 (APC) 上的受体识别为 PAMP。因此，碳水化合物及其类似物已被用作佐剂和递送系统以促进抗原转运至APC。碳水化合物具有生物相容性，通常无毒，可生物降解，有些具有粘膜粘附性。因此，碳水化合物及其衍生物已被深入探索用于开发新佐剂。本综述评估了碳水化合物配体的免疫功能及其增强针对共同施用抗原的全身和粘膜免疫反应的能力。详细讨论了基于碳水化合物的佐剂/递送系统在亚单位疫苗开发中的作用。