Abstract Carbon footprint and water footprint assessments can be powerful tools to guide sustainable food production systems. The present study simultaneously quantified the carbon footprint (CF) and water footprint (WF) of rice and wheat production in the five agro-climatic zones of Punjab, India using farm survey data. Further, the variability in CF among the five agro-climatic zones and farm sizes was analysed. The carbon footprint per unit area of rice and wheat was found to be 8.80 ± 5.71 and 4.18 ± 1.13 t CO2eq/ha respectively. The CF per tonne of rice and wheat was 1.20 ± 0.70 and 0.83 ± 0.23 t CO2eq/t respectively. Large farms had 39% lower CF per tonne of rice compared to small farms. Residue burning, direct methane emissions and fertilizer use were the most important factors that contributed to the CF of rice and wheat production in Punjab. Nitrogen fertilizer use was identified as the major hotspot for mitigation. The average WF of rice and wheat was found to be 1097 and 871 m3/t respectively. A disparity between CROPWAT estimates of blue WF and actual blue water use was established indicating the need for actual blue WF accounting, particularly for flood irrigated crop production. Additionally, policy measures based on ground situation are discussed and the major role of local government policies in mitigating carbon and water footprint is highlighted.

中文翻译：

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印度旁遮普省水稻和小麦生产的碳足迹和水足迹

摘要 碳足迹和水足迹评估可以成为指导可持续粮食生产系统的有力工具。本研究使用农场调查数据同时量化了印度旁遮普省五个农业气候区水稻和小麦生产的碳足迹 (CF) 和水足迹 (WF)。此外，还分析了五个农业气候带和农场规模之间 CF 的变异性。发现水稻和小麦单位面积的碳足迹分别为 8.80 ± 5.71 和 4.18 ± 1.13 t CO2eq/ha。每吨大米和小麦的 CF 分别为 1.20 ± 0.70 和 0.83 ± 0.23 t CO2eq/t。与小型农场相比，大型农场每吨大米的 CF 低 39%。残渣燃烧，直接甲烷排放和化肥使用是影响旁遮普省水稻和小麦生产 CF 的最重要因素。氮肥的使用被确定为缓解的主要热点。水稻和小麦的平均 WF 分别为 1097 和 871 立方米/吨。CROPWAT 对蓝色 WF 的估计值与实际蓝色水使用量之间存在差异，表明需要进行实际的蓝色 WF 核算，特别是对于洪水灌溉作物生产。此外，还讨论了基于地面情况的政策措施，并强调了地方政府政策在减少碳足迹和水足迹方面的主要作用。CROPWAT 对蓝色 WF 的估计值与实际蓝色水使用量之间存在差异，表明需要进行实际的蓝色 WF 核算，特别是对于洪水灌溉作物生产。此外，还讨论了基于地面情况的政策措施，并强调了地方政府政策在减少碳足迹和水足迹方面的主要作用。CROPWAT 对蓝色 WF 的估计值与实际蓝色水使用量之间存在差异，表明需要进行实际的蓝色 WF 核算，特别是对于洪水灌溉作物生产。此外，还讨论了基于地面情况的政策措施，并强调了地方政府政策在减少碳足迹和水足迹方面的主要作用。