Same/different abstract-concept learning provides a basis for higher order learning. We present criteria (e.g. the use of novel items, how to reinforce responding, achieving full concept learning) for evaluating evidence of abstract-concept learning. We discuss how revealing functional relationships also are critical for understanding how abstract concepts are learned. To illustrate our points, data from six diverse species are presented. The findings reveal quantitative differences in learning with all species achieving full abstract-concept learning. We conclude that same/different abstract-concept learning is an example of convergent evolution shared amongst mammalian and non-mammalian species.

相同/不同的抽象概念学习为高阶学习提供了基础。我们提出了评估抽象概念学习证据的标准（例如，使用新颖的物品，如何增强反应能力，实现完整的概念学习）。我们讨论了揭示功能关系对于理解抽象概念的学习方式也至关重要。为了说明我们的观点，提出了六个不同物种的数据。这些发现揭示了在所有物种都实现了完全抽象概念学习的学习中，数量上的差异。我们得出的结论是，相同/不同的抽象概念学习是哺乳动物和非哺乳动物物种共享的趋同进化的一个例子。