Public schools in most rural areas of South Africa depend on untreated groundwater due to unreliable water supply by the municipalities. This has the potential to cause water-related health problems to school children. Temperature, pH, and electrical conductivity (EC) were measured in situ. Chemical (fluoride, chloride, sulphate, phosphate, nitrate, magnesium, calcium, sodium, and potassium) and microbial (Escherichia coliform (E. coli), Salmonella typhimurium, and Shigella flexneri) water quality parameters were analysed in groundwater samples from 10 public schools in Vhuronga 1 to determine suitability for use. Quantitative microbial risk assessment was carried out to determine risks of infection and illness due to consumption of groundwater. Correlation analysis was used to identify potential sources of contamination. All physical and most chemical water quality parameters were within guidelines for domestic water use. A high proportion of schools had high levels of microbial organisms. Risks of infection per day were relatively low for all schools. The annual risks of infection due to E. coli and Shigella flexneri for most schools was high, with maximum values of 89.11 and 83.75%, respectively. Maximum risks of illness per year were 31.19, 30.37, and 29.31% for E. coli, Salmonella typhimurium, and Shigella flexneri, respectively. Correlation analysis indicated potential contamination of groundwater by agricultural activities, domestic waste, and faecal contamination from pit latrines. Preventive and mitigation measures to minimise such risks, including locating boreholes at safe distances from pit latrines, prevention/minimisation of pollution of groundwater from agricultural activities, and point-of-use treatment of groundwater by the schools are therefore essential.

中文翻译：

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南非林波波省Vhuronga 1的公立学校使用的健康风险和潜在污染源

南非大多数农村地区的公立学校由于市政供水不可靠而依赖未经处理的地下水。这有可能导致学童与水有关的健康问题。温度，pH和电导率（EC）在原位进行测量。化学药品（氟化物，氯化物，硫酸盐，磷酸盐，硝酸盐，镁，钙，钠和钾）和微生物（大肠埃希氏菌（大肠杆菌），鼠伤寒沙门氏菌和弗氏志贺氏菌）对Vhuronga 1的10所公立学校的地下水样品中的水质参数进行了分析，以确定其适用性。进行了定量的微生物风险评估，以确定因消耗地下水引起的感染和疾病的风险。相关分析被用来识别潜在的污染源。所有物理和大多数化学水质量参数均在家庭用水准则之内。大部分学校的微生物含量很高。所有学校每天的感染风险相对较低。大肠杆菌和弗氏志贺氏菌引起的年度感染风险大多数学校的教育水平最高，分别为89.11和83.75％。大肠杆菌，鼠伤寒沙门氏菌和弗氏志贺氏菌每年的最大疾病风险分别为31.19％，30.37和29.31％。相关分析表明，农业活动，生活垃圾和坑厕对粪便的污染可能会对地下水造成污染。因此，必须采取预防和缓解措施以最大程度地减少此类风险，包括在距井厕安全距离的地方设置井眼，防止/最小化农业活动对地下水的污染以及学校对地下水进行使用点处理。