Abstract We review the evidence that mothers, compared to childless women or fathers, are discriminated at work (“motherhood penalty”) and that fathers may receive “caregiver penalties.” We conclude that (implicitly or explicitly) expected family roles appear to determine parenthood penalties. On this basis, we examined penalties for fathers who are only assumed to be primary caregivers. We found “fatherhood penalties” for single fathers compared to married fathers (Experiment 1, N = 343) and compared to singles and single mothers (Experiment 2, N = 142 professionals). We discuss the mixed evidence on work-related perceptions of parents.

中文翻译：

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与工作有关的印象形成：审查生育惩罚和调查单身父亲的“父亲惩罚”

摘要 我们回顾了与没有孩子的妇女或父亲相比，母亲在工作中受到歧视（“母亲惩罚”）以及父亲可能受到“照顾者惩罚”的证据。我们得出结论，（暗示或明确）预期的家庭角色似乎决定了为人父母的惩罚。在此基础上，我们研究了对仅被假定为主要照顾者的父亲的处罚。我们发现与已婚父亲（实验 1，N = 343）以及与单身和单身母亲（实验 2，N = 142 名专业人士）相比，单身父亲的“父亲惩罚”。我们讨论了父母对工作相关看法的混合证据。