Abstract This review considers key parameters for affordable Li-ion battery (LIB) – powered electric transportation, such as mineral abundance for active material synthesis, raw materials’ processing cost, cell performance characteristics, cell energy density, and the cost of cell manufacturing. We analyze the scarcity of cobalt (Co) and nickel (Ni) resources available for intercalation-type LIB cathode materials, estimate the demands for these metals by transportation and other industries and discuss risk factors for their price increase within the next two decades. We further contrast performance and estimates costs of LIBs based on intercalation materials, such as lithium nickel cobalt manganese oxide (NCM), lithium nickel cobalt aluminum oxide (NCA), lithium iron phosphate (LFP) and other oxide-based cathodes and carbonaceous anodes, with those of LIBs based on conversion-type active materials, such as lithium sulfide (Li2S) and lithium fluoride/iron (Fe) and copper (Cu)-based cathodes and silicon (Si)-based anodes. Our analyses of industry data suggest that in the long-term the LIB price will be dominated by cost of the cathode materials. In addition, the cost contributions of manufacturing, overhead and inactive materials will be reversely proportional to the cell energy density. As such, we expect that to-be developed energy-dense conversion-type LIBs should be able to reach the $30–40/kWh by around 2040–2050, while the intercalation-type LIBs will likely be 60% more expensive and sensitive to the Ni price variations. By analyzing the availability and costs of lithium (Li), sulfur (S), Si, fluorine (F), Fe and Cu we conclude that the lower cost, broader accessibility, much greater abundance, and improved health and safety aspects of employing conversion-type chemistries should warrant dedication of substantial efforts in their development. Furthermore, we predict that based on pure economics, the widespread introduction of zero carbon-emission transportation and sustainable energy sources is inevitable and independent on the winning LIB chemistry.

中文翻译：

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用于低成本电动交通工具的电池材料

摘要 本综述考虑了经济实惠的锂离子电池 (LIB) 动力电动运输的关键参数，例如活性材料合成的矿物丰度、原材料的加工成本、电池性能特征、电池能量密度和电池制造成本。我们分析了可用于嵌入型锂离子电池正极材料的钴 (Co) 和镍 (Ni) 资源的稀缺性，估计了运输和其他行业对这些金属的需求，并讨论了未来 20 年内其价格上涨的风险因素。我们进一步对比了基于插层材料的 LIB 的性能和成本，例如锂镍钴锰氧化物 (NCM)、锂镍钴铝氧化物 (NCA)、磷酸铁锂 (LFP) 和其他基于氧化物的正极和碳质负极，与基于转换型活性材料的锂离子电池，如硫化锂 (Li2S) 和氟化锂/铁 (Fe) 和铜 (Cu) 基阴极和硅 (Si) 基阳极。我们对行业数据的分析表明，长期来看，锂离子电池价格将由正极材料的成本主导。此外，制造、间接费用和非活性材料的成本贡献将与电池能量密度成反比。因此，我们预计，到 2040 年至 2050 年左右，即将开发的能量密集型转换型 LIB 应该能够达到 30-40 美元/千瓦时，而嵌入型 LIB 可能会贵 60%，并且对Ni 的价格变化。通过分析锂 (Li)、硫 (S)、Si、氟 (F)、Fe 和 Cu 的可用性和成本，我们得出结论，成本更低、可及性更广，使用转化型化学物质的更多丰度以及改善的健康和安全方面应该保证在其开发中付出大量努力。此外，我们预测，基于纯经济学，零碳排放交通和可持续能源的广泛引入是不可避免的，并且独立于获胜的 LIB 化学。