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An analysis of the factors that control fault zone architecture and the importance of fault orientation relative to regional stress
GSA Bulletin ( IF 3.9 ) Pub Date : 2020-09-01 , DOI: 10.1130/b35308.1
John M. Fletcher 1 , Orlando J. Teran 1 , Thomas K. Rockwell 2 , Michael E. Oskin 3 , Kenneth W. Hudnut 4 , Ronald M. Spelz 5 , Pierre Lacan 6 , Matthew T. Dorsey 2 , Giles Ostermeijer 7 , Thomas M. Mitchell 7 , Sinan O. Akciz 8 , Ana Paula Hernandez-Flores 1 , Alejandro Hinojosa-Corona 1 , Ivan Peña-Villa 1 , David K. Lynch 4
Affiliation  

The moment magnitude 7.2 El Mayor–Cucapah (EMC) earthquake of 2010 in northern Baja California, Mexico produced a cascading rupture that propagated through a geometrically diverse network of intersecting faults. These faults have been exhumed from depths of 6–10 km since the late Miocene based on low-temperature thermochronology, synkinematic alteration, and deformational fabrics. Coseismic slip of 1–6 m of the EMC event was accommodated by fault zones that displayed the full spectrum of architectural styles, from simple narrow fault zones (< 100 m in width) that have a single high-strain core, to complex wide fault zones (> 100 m in width) that have multiple anastomosing high-strain cores. As fault zone complexity and width increase the full spectrum of observed widths (20–200 m), coseismic slip becomes more broadly distributed on a greater number of scarps that form wider arrays. Thus, the infinitesimal slip of the surface rupture of a single earthquake strongly replicates many of the fabric elements that were developed during the long-term history of slip on the faults at deeper levels of the seismogenic crust. We find that factors such as protolith, normal stress, and displacement, which control gouge production in laboratory experiments, also affect the architectural complexity of natural faults. Fault zones developed in phyllosilicate-rich metasedimentary gneiss are generally wider and more complex than those developed in quartzo-feldspathic granitoid rocks. We hypothesize that the overall weakness and low strength contrast of faults developed in phyllosilicate rich host rocks leads to strain hardening and formation of broad, multi-stranded fault zones. Fault orientation also strongly affects fault zone complexity, which we find to increase with decreasing fault dip. We attribute this to the higher resolved normal stresses on gently dipping faults assuming a uniform stress field compatible with this extensional tectonic setting. The conditions that permit slip on misoriented surfaces with high normal stress should also produce failure of more optimally oriented slip systems in the fault zone, promoting complex branching and development of multiple high-strain cores. Overall, we find that fault zone architecture need not be strongly affected by differences in the amount of cumulative slip and instead is more strongly controlled by protolith and relative normal stress.Most faults are characterized by a zone of penetrative fracturing that increases in intensity toward progressively higher strain portions of the fault zone, culminating in a zone of gouge or cataclasite that is recognized as the fault core (e.g., Chester and Logan, 1986; Caine et al., 1996). The thickness of the damage zones of penetrative fracturing (tens to hundreds of meters) is up to several orders of magnitude greater than the width of high-strain fault cores, which generally ranges from a few centimeters to several meters (e.g., Shipton and Cowie, 2001). The internal structure or architecture of a fault zone is defined by the number and distribution of high-strain cores, the overall width and intensity of fracturing in the zone of damage that extends into the country rock, and the presence of subsidiary faults that cut through and, in some cases, extend beyond the limits of the main fault zone (e.g., Faulkner et al., 2010).A central goal in the study of fault mechanics is to understand how the internal structure of a fault zone relates to its mechanical and seismogenic behavior (Biegel and Sammis, 2004; Frost et al., 2009). The internal structure of a fault zone is recognized to be affected by displacement (e.g., Scholz, 1987; Shipton and Cowie, 2001), lithology (e.g., Faulkner et al., 2003, 2008), preexisting fabric (e.g., Collettini and Sibson, 2001), and depth, the latter of which controls gradients in temperature, confining pressure, and fluid pressure (e.g., Sibson, 1977; Butler et al., 1995; Wibberley et al., 2008). Interseismic healing may significantly change the mechanical behavior of a fault and is thought to occur due to post-seismic compaction and lithification of fractured fault rocks (e.g., Karner et al., 1997). Understanding the complex interplay between all of these variables requires the integration of results from laboratory experiments and mechanical modeling, with direct observations of the faults themselves from structural and seismological studies.The internal structure, or architecture, of a fault zone not only reflects its physical properties but also its mechanical evolution and mode of slip. Faulkner et al. (2003, 2010) described fault zones with two contrasting architectural styles. The first is a simple fault zone with a single high-strain core. Many workers recognize a positive feedback between slip and various transformation weakening processes associated with cataclasis (e.g., Chester et al., 1993; Yan et al., 2001). Progressive strain softening is thought to cause fault zones to evolve toward architectural simplicity with shear concentrated into a single, narrow core that lies within the variably fractured damage zone (e.g., Chester et al., 1993; Ben-Zion and Sammis, 2003; Cowgill et al., 2004a; Rockwell and Ben Zion, 2007; Frost et al., 2009). Because slip localization is required for seismic rupture nucleation and propagation, the mode of displacement accommodated by single-cored faults is thought to be dominated by stick-slip (Chester and Logan, 1986). However, this model of fault zone evolution cannot explain the occurrence of complex fault zones that are much wider and have multiple overlapping high-strain cores, which constitute the second architectural style described by Faulkner et al. (2003). The evolution of a fault zone toward structural complexity is hypothesized to result from strain hardening, which causes slip to relocate and leads to the development of multiple overlapping high-strain cores (Faulkner et al., 2003, 2008; Cowgill et al., 2004a). The Carboneras fault of Spain and the Parkfield section of the San Andreas fault in California, USA, are two well studied examples of wide multi-core fault zones (Rymer et al., 2006; Bradbury et al., 2011). Both are hosted within weak phyllosilicate-rich country rock and demonstrate mixed-mode displacement with stable creep associated with large numbers of small earthquakes interpreted to represent localized patches of the fault surface undergoing stick slip sliding surrounded by stable sliding areas (Rubin et al., 1999; Faulkner et al., 2003).The Sierra Cucapah in northern Baja California, Mexico is an ideal natural laboratory for testing hypothesized controls on fault zone architecture. It is located near the axis of shearing between the Pacific and North American plates and contains a diverse array of faults that accommodate three dimensional, transtensional strain. Individual faults have large variations in cumulative slip, protolith, and kinematics, which allow us to assess the role of each of these parameters in generating fault zones with a spectrum of architectural styles. Importantly, all of the faults in the Sierra Cucapah are active and many have segments that slipped in the 2010 moment magnitude (MW) 7.2 El Mayor–Cucapah (EMC) earthquake (Fletcher et al., 2014). This study builds on the work of Teran et al. (2015) to document how fault-zone architecture evolves with the coseismic slip, and, in turn, how this architecture affects rupture propagation. We provide field evidence demonstrating that the architecture of a fault is strongly affected by its orientation relative to regional principal stresses. We find that as the slip tendency or ratio of shear to normal stress (Morris et al., 1996; Tong and Yin, 2011) on a fault decreases, its width and architectural complexity increases. Overall, we show that factors known to increase gouge production in the laboratory setting, such as protolith rheology, normal stress, and cumulative slip (e.g., Yoshioka, 1986), also increase the width and architectural complexity of natural faults.The Sierra Cucapah forms an uplifted massif of crystalline basement that rises 1 km in relief above the surrounding rift valley floor (Fig. 1). Plate margin faults are exceptionally well exposed in this remote desert region of northern Baja California and have been exhumed from depths of 6–10 km since the late Miocene (Axen et al., 2000), which corresponds to the middle to lower portion of the seismogenic crust. The faults have a wide range of orientations, and individual fault sections vary in strike from 290° to 040° with dips that vary from 90° to 20° (Fletcher et al., 2014; Teran et al., 2015). In map view, the faults are short (20–30 km), discontinuous and end at intersections with other faults (Fig. 2). In three dimensions this fault system forms a complex interlocking network, which gives rise to intimate mechanical interactions between faults (Fletcher et al., 2016). The MW 7.2 EMC earthquake of 2010 demonstrated that the complex fault network failed as an integrated system and its strength was controlled by the cross-cutting misoriented faults that support higher levels of shear stress (Fletcher et al., 2016).The geometric diversity of faults in the complex network gives rise to kinematic diversity. Shear sense varies from pure normal dip slip to pure dextral strike slip, but most faults have oblique slip defined by some combination of normal and lateral shear (Fletcher et al., 2014). Although highly variable, slip direction is not random. Fletcher et al. (2016) demonstrated that incremental changes in fault orientation are associated with incremental changes in the rake of slip. Moreover, they showed that coseismic slip directions are consistent with the variations predicted by uniform regional stress state (e.g., Wallace, 1951; Bott, 1959) where the maximum principal stress is vertical, the minimum is horizontal trending ENE, and the intermediate principal stress is close in magnitude to the maximum and trends NNW. This stress state is consistent with prolate triaxial strain, which is expected in a transtensional shear zone (e.g., Fossen et al., 1994). Therefore, the complexity of faulting in the Sierra Cucapah, with all of its diversity, is required to accommodate the three-dimensional strain of this transtensional plate margin.The crystalline basement of the Sierra Cucapah is a lithologically diverse sequence of metamorphic and plutonic rocks of Jurassic and Cretaceous age (Barnard, 1968; Axen et al., 2000). Surrounding the Sierra Cucapah, these rocks are juxtaposed by faults against synrift sedimentary sequences that reach 4 km in thickness (Kelm, 1971; García-Abdeslem et al., 2001; Fletcher and Spelz, 2009; Chanes-Martínez et al., 2014) and range in age from late Miocene to the present (Seim, 1992; Dorsey and Martin-Barajas, 1999; Chanes-Martínez et al., 2014; Fig. 2). The central portion of the range contains a dismembered, compositionally zoned batholith of Late Cretaceous age (Barnard, 1968). The batholith has a felsic core of unfoliated to weakly foliated granodiorite (Cucapah granodiorite) that intrudes a more mafic but compositionally heterogeneous complex of strongly foliated meta-igneous gneiss (La Puerta tonalite in Fig. 2). Along the outer intrusive contact of the granodioritic core, Barnard (1968) mapped a foliated rock unit of intermediate composition that he termed the melanocratic intrusive phase. This rock unit pinches and swells along strike and in places reaches as much as 2 km in thickness. The northern third of the Sierra Cucapah along with much of Sierra El Mayor immediately to the south are dominated by an extensive sequence of upper amphibolite facies metasedimentary gneiss (green unit in Fig. 2; Barnard, 1968). Abundant cross-cutting intrusive contacts and systematic variations in the thickness of ductility deformed rock units provide abundant markers that act as piercing points to determine cumulative offset across individual faults. Below we summarize the geometry, cross cutting relations and cumulative offset of the main faults examined in this study.The Laguna Salada fault defines the western limit of the Sierra Cucapah and controls a sharp linear mountain front juxtaposed against the northern half of the Laguna Salada Basin (Fig. 1; Barnard, 1968; Chora-Salvador, 2003; Mueller and Rockwell, 1991, 1995; Axen and Fletcher, 1998; Fletcher and Spelz, 2009). Basin fill along the Laguna Salada fault reaches 3–4 km in thickness based on gravimetric modeling (Kelm, 1971; García-Abdeslem et al., 2001; Fletcher and Spelz, 2009). At the junction of the Sierra Cucapah with the Sierra El Mayor, the west-directed Cañada David detachment transfers 14 km of horizontal displacement (Fletcher and Spelz, 2009) onto the Laguna Salada fault (Fig. 2). Along its southern mapped extent, the Laguna Salada fault places prebatholithic metasedimentary rocks of the Sierra El Mayor against the plutonic rocks of the Sierra Cucapah (Fig. 2). The fact that these rocks have a similar unroofing history (Axen et al., 1998) indicates little vertical motion across the Laguna Salada fault here. Thus its cumulative right lateral slip must be >11 km, which is the length of exposed fault contact between dissimilar basement rocks.The Pescadores fault splays off the Laguna Salada fault and extends toward the north along the western side of the Sierra Cucapah crest (Fig. 2; Barnard, 1968). In general, the Pescadores fault is subplanar, strikes ∼310°, and dips steeply (∼75°) to the northeast. The Borrego fault is another splay that extends toward the north from the Laguna Salada fault (Fig. 2). Its curvilinear mapped trace spans a wide range of dips (40°–84°) toward the northeast (Barnard, 1968; Fletcher et al., 2014). Cumulative offset on both faults may be constrained from offset of piercing lines formed by the sub-vertical pinch-out of the melanocratic phase of the Cretaceous Cucapah igneous complex (Fig. 2). We recognize ∼4.4 km of dextral-normal slip on the Pescadores fault, and 6–8 km dextral-normal slip on the Borrego fault. Near its northern limit, the Pescadores fault bifurcates and is cut by the Zaragosa detachment (Fig. 2), whereas the Borrego fault cuts off this detachment. The immediate hanging wall of the Borrego fault consists of late Tertiary rift basin sediments that likely represent a dismembered sliver captured from the paleomargin of the Laguna Salada basin (Fig. 2).The Paso Superior detachment dips as low as 20° and has a curviplanar surface defined by several prominent megamullions (Fig. 2; Fletcher et al., 2014). Two prominent ramp sections are observed where dip increases to 40°–55° (Fletcher et al., 2014). The fault controls an extensive sedimentary basin that is 3–5 km in width. The vertical component of cumulative offset across the Paso Superior detachment is estimated to be at least 5–6 km, which is a minimum amount of tectonic exhumation since the late Miocene as documented with thermochronology on other detachment faults in the area that have similar structural relations (Axen et al., 2000). The cumulative slip on the Paso Superior detachment is likely to be two to three times greater than the vertical unroofing due to both the shallow dip of the fault and the strong component of right-lateral slip that it accommodates.Fault zone architecture represents the internal configuration of structures and fabrics produced by shearing and is defined in terms of three main rock units: unfractured protolith, damage zone, and fault core (e.g., Chester and Logan, 1986; Caine et al., 1996). Most slip occurs in the fault core, which is composed of a wide range of high-strain fault rocks including breccia, gouge, cataclasites, and ultracataclasites (Mitchell and Faulkner, 2009, and references therein). Fault zones can have multiple cores, with more cores reflecting more complexity (Faulkner et al., 2003, 2008; Mitchell and Faulkner, 2009), although not all fault cores need to have slipped simultaneously. The damage zone is the heavily fractured rock that surrounds the core(s). The degree of damage may be measured by the density of fractures and/or healed fluid inclusion planes, which typically diminish exponentially with distance from a fault core and eventually grades into the background fracture density of the surrounding protolith host rock (Chester and Logan, 1986; Mitchell and Faulkner, 2009; Rockwell et al., 2009; Rempe et al., 2013,Morton et al., 2012). Another important structural element of fault zone architecture are subsidiary faults, which have focused shear strain that is greater than that of rocks in the damage zone, but significantly less than that observed in the fault cores. Subsidiary faults may either branch from the fault cores or cut them. Additionally, they can exist entirely within the damage zone or extend beyond the fault zone and into the surrounding protolith.In this paper we utilize the work of Teran et al. (2015) who presented systematic mapping at scales of 1:500 or better for all the fault sections that ruptured in the 2010 MW 7.2 EMC earthquake. The identification of the outer limits of the fault zones was aided by a strong contrast in outcrop weathering resistance between highly fractured fault rocks and crystalline basement with a background intensity of fractures (Teran et al., 2015).Rupture zone fabric is a general term we use to describe the distribution and internal configuration of coseismic slip, as revealed by fault-scarp arrays cutting the ground surface. Some of its defining characteristics include: (1) rupture zone thickness, (2) number of scarps, (3) distribution and partitioning of coseismic slip across scarps within the rupture zone, (4) existence of a principal displacement scarp, and (5) geometric arrangement of different sets of scarps, patterns of splaying, and degree of interconnectivity (Teran et al., 2015). Based on these characteristics, Teran et al. (2015) developed a set of parameters that could be systematically and quantitatively documented along the length of the 2010 EMC surface rupture in the Sierra Cucapah. They found that rupture zone thickness varies by more than an order of magnitude (12–262 m), and as rupture zone thickness increases, so does the number of coseismic scarps counted in strike-perpendicular transects. Therefore, this suggests that as rupture zones become wider, coseismic slip becomes more broadly distributed on multiple scarps in progressively more complex arrays.Coseismic slip partitioning is expressed in terms of variations in the magnitude and sense of offset accommodated by individual members of a fault scarp array, and both of these kinematic parameters were systematically compiled by Fletcher et al. (2014). Teran et al. (2015) classified all scarps of the 2010 EMC rupture in the Sierra Cucapah into four categories based on relative magnitude of the total coseismic slip that the principal scarp accommodates in any given strike perpendicular transect: >90%, 60%–90%, 30%–60%, <30%. We show that this classification scheme can be used to distinguish fault sections with slip that is focused onto a single principal scarp that accommodates most of the coseismic slip from those with more broadly distributed slip on multiple overlapping scarps. Coseismic slip partitioning among individual faults of a scarp array is also key for defining the symmetry of coseismic slip distribution relative to important structural elements such as the principal fault scarp, the tectonic contact separating distinct fault blocks, and the boundaries of the long-lived master fault zone.In this paper, we build on the work of Teran et al. (2015) who showed that rupture zone thickness is strongly correlated with the thickness of the damage zone of the fault along which it propagated (Fig. 3). These relationships strongly suggest that many important aspects of rupture zone fabric are related to the architecture of the long-lived fault zone. This raises questions concerning whether one phenomenon controls the other or if some other processes related to seismogenic failure may drive development of both rupture zone fabric and fault zone architecture.In order to understand the factors and processes that control rupture zone fabric and its relationship with the structural evolution of the host fault zone, we mapped three case studies in detail. Each contains an association of multiple characteristics that represent important categories that define distinct levels in a spectrum of increasing variations in structural complexity. The architectural complexity of a long-lived fault zone is represented by increasing width, number of cores, and the role of subsidiary faults. The complexity of fracture fabrics formed in the rupture zone of an infinitesimal increment of coseismic slip is represented by increasing width, number of scarps, kinematic partitioning, and role of subsidiary faults. These and other key geometric, kinematic, and lithologic characteristics are described in detail below and summarized in Table 1.The Pescadores fault has one of the narrowest and structurally simplest fault zones in the Sierra Cucapah (Figs. 4A, 5A, and 6). It dips steeply (∼75°) and has a relatively straight trace through the high-relief mountainous terrain along the crest of the Sierra Cucapah (Fig. 4A). Its fault zone is ∼20 m wide and is dominantly composed of unconsolidated fault breccia and gouge developed in the granitoid rocks that comprise both the footwall and hanging wall (Fig. 6). More resistant outcrops of the host rock prominently define the outer margins of the fault zone (Fig. 6). The fault core contains foliated clay gouge (<1 m thick) that has likely accommodated most of the cumulative geologic slip of ∼4.4 km. The core coincides with the trace of paleo-bedrock fault scarps and contains the principal displacement scarp of the 2010 EMC rupture (Fig. 6).The EMC rupture associated with the Pescadores fault extends ∼15 km along strike and generally consists of a single, prominent principal scarp from which emanate a series of secondary fractures with a Riedel-like obliquity (Figs. 4A and 6A). Total coseismic slip is strongly oblique with an average ∼2.5 m of dextral and ∼0.9 m normal slip (Fletcher et al., 2014). A principal scarp with >90% of total coseismic slip dominates the northern 10 km of this rupture section (Fig. 4A). In the south, near the intersection with the Laguna Salada fault, where the rupture branched from one master fault to another (Fig. 2), the relative displacement on the principal scarp decreases to 60%–90% and coseismic slip is somewhat more distributed. Although the Pescadores fault has a highly linear trace, the principal scarp is not continuous along strike, but rather is divided into segments that are generally <3 km in length and separated by discontinuities that occur as short en echelon steps (100–150 m wide). Secondary fault scarps are generally much shorter in length (<120 m). They typically splay obliquely from the principal scarp and extend to the lateral limit of the damage zone where they curve into parallelism with the principal scarp. In general, the rupture zone does not exceed 20 m in thickness, which coincides with the width of the fault zone. However, Teran et al. (2015) documented short anomalously wide sections with thicknesses as great as ∼60 m. These wider sections, extending several hundred meters along strike, may be related to step-overs between spatially distinct fault cores.In contrast to the Pescadores fault, the central Borrego fault section has a gentler dip (40° to 50°), accommodates twice as much cumulative slip (6–8 km), and has a fault zone that is more than five times wider, averaging ∼100 m and locally reaching ∼175 m (Figs. 4B and 7). The wide damage zone is composed of highly fractured rock and contains numerous cores defined by high-strain fault rocks including non-cohesive gouge, foliated gouge, and cohesive crush breccia (Fig. 8). In general, the fault cores vary in width from 10 to 100 cm. The rocks that make up the fault zone along this section of the Borrego fault are overwhelmingly derived from the footwall, which is composed of an intrusive complex that ranges from foliated diorite to non-foliated granite. These rocks are easily distinguished from the hanging wall, which is composed of synrift clastic sedimentary strata (Fig. 2; Barnard, 1968; Chora-Salvador, 2003). The low involvement of hanging wall strata within the fault core may reflect the relatively short duration that the hanging wall sediments have been in fault contact. Therefore, at depths below this structural basin where the hanging wall is composed of pretectonic crystalline basement, the fault zone width may be greater than that documented at the surface.Scarps of the EMC rupture are generally distributed throughout the core and damage zone of the central Borrego fault (Figs. 7A and 8B), and coseismic slip averages ∼2.8 m with a 1:1 ratio of lateral:vertical slip (Fletcher et al., 2014). Some scarp-forming faults follow a moderately dipping core near the base of the damage zone (Fig. 7B), and, in general, the structurally highest fault strands occur below the upper tectonic contact between fault zone and sedimentary basin fill (Fig. 4B). The fabric of the rupture zone is defined by a parallel-anastomosing pattern, and some sections contain up to 20 individual scarps (Fig. 4B). In contrast to the Pescadores fault segment, en echelon arrays are exceedingly rare. The orientation of almost every individual scarp-forming fault is subparallel to the upper and lower boundaries of the fault zone, and the rake of coseismic slip on most individual scarps is similar to that of total coseismic slip integrated from all scarps in a given transect. Thus, the sense of coseismic slip is not strongly partitioned among the numerous scarps within the central section of the Borrego fault. Nonetheless, faults with an antithetic west-down sense of vertical displacement were present along a short section, which indicates that some slip transfer occurred between the master fault and the scarp-forming faults. (Fig. 2).Along the central section of the Borrego fault, coseismic slip of the 2010 EMC event is distributed among multiple overlapping scarps, which in some transects include as many as 18 individual scarps (Fig. 4B). Thus, principal scarps were difficult to identify and no scarp was observed to accommodate more than 90% of the total coseismic slip. Moreover, principal scarps with 60%–90% of the total coseismic slip were only observed along four nonadjacent sections, none of which extend more than 600 m along strike (Fig. 4B). More commonly, surface rupture along the Borrego fault displays at least two overlapping fault scarps carrying 30%–60% of the slip together with numerous other scarps carrying 0%–30% of the slip (Fig. 4B).The Borrego fault preserves evidence that the localization of slip on a primary fault trace may vary from one event to the next. Paleoscarps that formed in the penultimate event are sporadically preserved (Fig. 9; Hernandez Flores et al., 2013; Hernandez Flores, 2015) where cutting the oldest regionally correlative alluvial fan surface, which is likely late Pleistocene in age based on its well-developed argillic and carbonate-bearing soil horizons (Mueller and Rockwell, 1995; Spelz et al., 2008). Due to the highly restricted distribution of this fan surface and the long recurrence interval since the penultimate event, these paleoscarps are poorly preserved. Nonetheless, all preserved paleoscarps were reactivated in the 2010 EMC event and one locality confirms the existence of multiple overlapping scarps in the penultimate event (Fig. 9). These structural relationships suggest a certain repeatability of the pattern of surface rupture in consecutive events. However, in one case, a paleoscarp with ∼4 m of vertical offset was reactivated with only 25–45 cm of vertical slip in the 2010 EMC event. Detailed mapping and trenching shows that this large-offset paleoscarp formed in a single event (Hernandez Flores et al., 2013; Hernandez Flores, 2015), and thus it carried at least 60%–90% of the coseismic displacement in the previous event. In contrast, the 2010 EMC event did not produce an obvious principal displacement scarp along the same fault section.The Paso Superior detachment illustrates the key characteristics of a wide, complex fault zone architecture. The fault zone reaches 170 m in thickness with discrete high-strain cataclasite and gouge zones distributed throughout. Gouge zones that reach ∼2 m in thickness are commonly found along the contact that separates footwall derived fault rocks from syn-rift strata of the hanging wall basin (Fig. 10). Foliated clay gouge near the contact may show a change in color from greenish/blackish hues to brownish/reddish hues reflecting incorporation of both the footwall and hanging wall protoliths, respectively. We also observe footwall-derived clay gouge in direct contact with weakly fractured sedimentary strata, and essentially no gouge derived from the hanging wall. As observed with other faults, the base of the gently dipping fault zone is well defined by an abrupt change in fracture intensity. The damage zone contains numerous different fault rocks including: thin (<2 cm) discrete slip surfaces, chloritically altered fault breccia, and strongly cohesive cataclasite (Fig. 11). The intensity of cataclasis through the damage zone is heterogeneous and we commonly observe numerous anastomosing high-strain zones separated by lenses of variably fractured protolith. Rocks in the damage zone are derived from the footwall, which consists of a lithologically heterogeneous metamorphic and igneous protoliths. Among other rock types, the damage zone contains rheologically weak protoliths such as phyllosilicate rich schists, gneiss, and marble. Strain is commonly concentrated into the weaker phyllosilicate-rich rock types as well as along contacts between rock types with strong mechanical contrasts. The damage zone of the Paso Superior detachment commonly displays a strong lithologic layering that may either represent tectonic transposition of the heterogeneous protolith or guiding of fractures along the anisotropic metamorphic layering (Fig. 12A).Along most of the Paso Superior detachment, the EMC rupture had oblique slip with an average of 1.5 m dextral and 1.1 m of normal displacements (Fletcher et al., 2014). However, the fabric of the EMC rupture shows systematic variations that coincide well with ramps and flats of the master fault (Figs. 4C, 10B, and 10C). Ramp sections are formed by subsidiary faults that emanate from the structurally lower portions of the fault zone and displace cores and fabrics in the structurally higher portions. In the steepest portions of the ramp sections, the EMC rupture is narrowest (thickness generally <50 m) and scarps show predominantly parallel-anastomosing arrays with minor en echelon left-stepping sets (Fig. 10C). In general, principal fault scarps are easiest to identify along the ramp sections, where they typically accommodate 60%–90% of the coseismic slip (Figs. 4C and 10B). In contrast, the EMC rupture is widest in the flat sections having a map-view width of up to 292 m and thickness of ∼170 m (Figs. 4C and 10C). The along-strike transition from ramp to flat also coincides with a widening of the rupture zone and principal scarps accommodating significantly less of the total coseismic slip (Figs. 4C, 10B, and 10C). The widening of the zone is accommodated by the branching of coseismic rupture along subsidiary faults that cut the hanging wall sedimentary basin above the more shallowly dipping sections of the Paso Superior detachment (Figs. 4C and 10C). Although the Paso Superior fault has an overall width similar to that of the Borrego fault and both contain multiple high-strain cores, the former is distinguished by abundant subsidiary faults that both cut through and extend beyond the limits of the long-term fault zone. This represents a significant difference in the internal structural complexity of these two faults.Where late Pleistocene fan surfaces that contain penultimate event scarps are preserved, we observe multiple overlapping paleoscarps with complex geometries and distributions. Although much of the detail of the penultimate surface rupture has been lost due to erosion, the complex branching of the EMC rupture coincides well with the remaining paleoscarps and, without exception, all observed paleoscarps were reactivated in this event.Flat sections of the Paso Superior detachments display the widest and most complex rupture zone fabrics from the 2010 EMC event. Coseismic slip is not only distributed among multiple scarps, but it is also partitioned kinematically into sets of scarp-forming faults with distinct orientations and slip directions. Figure 12A shows an example of spatially separated bands of scarps with distinct orientations and kinematics. Both sets have a subparallel strike and are exposed within the wide complex fault zone of the Paso Superior detachment. The set of scarps that crop out closest to the surface trace of the detachment exhibits shallow to moderate angles of inclination (50°–37°), which are only slightly steeper than the basal contact of the fault zone (31°–37°), and they accommodate predominately normal-sense coseismic slip (Fletcher et al., 2014). The set of scarps located farthest from the surface trace are subvertical and accommodate coseismic slip dominated by dextral strike slip (Fig. 12A; Fletcher et al., 2014). Farther north where the Paso Superior detachment crosses Highway 2, Figure 10B shows that scarps can be divided into at least two sets of distinctly different orientations; one set strikes subparallel to the hanging wall contact of the Paso Superior fault zone and a second includes a broad zone of left-stepping en echelon scarps that are highly oblique to the strike of the fault zone (Fig. 10A). The oblique strike and en echelon configuration of the second set demonstrates that they accommodate much of the dextral wrenching across the fault zone. Another example of kinematic partitioning is documented in Figure 12B. All scarps in this photo strike subparallel to the hanging wall contact, which dips 20° at this locality, but the scarps themselves are steep to subvertical. Based on the offset of the highway pavement and lane markers, it is clear that the set of scarps that crop out closest to the surface trace of the detachment accommodates pure normal-sense dip slip, whereas the set of scarps located farthest from the surface trace accommodates pure dextral strike slip.All of the above examples of kinematic partitioning show that despite the extreme structural complexities manifested in rupture zone fabric, there is an underlying order that implies the existence of a mechanical explanation. Wesnousky and Jones (1994) demonstrated that crustal-scale kinematic partitioning of transtensional shearing does not require changes in the state of stress to drive slip on both normal faults and strike slip faults, and they argued that kinematic partitioning on two faults is mechanically favored over oblique slip on a single fault. The 2010 EMC rupture clearly shows that whether it is favorable or not, oblique coseismic slip becomes partitioned onto multiple subsidiary faults that extend far beyond the limits of the long-lived fault zone.In order to test the hypothesis that kinematic partitioning is consistent with a single stress state, we plotted the hypothetical and observed slip directions for all cases of partitioned coseismic slip along the Paso Superior detachment (Fig. 13A). The assumed state of stress is consistent with stress inversions performed by Fletcher et al. (2016), who showed that for the Sierra Cucapah the maximum principal stress (σ1) is vertical, the minimum principal stress (σ3) is horizontal trending 085°, and the intermediate principal stress (σ2) is horizontal trending 355°. The orientations of principal stress axes were derived from the linked Bingham statistics of 237,000 stress models that make up the 95% confidence interval. The stress magnitude ratio (ϕ = (σ2-σ3)⁄(σ1-σ3)) is assumed to be 0.98, which is the modal peak for all the stress models in the 95% confidence interval and indicates that the maximum and intermediate principal stresses are very close in magnitude (Fletcher et al., 2016). Hypothetical slip directions shown in Figure 13 are assumed to be parallel to the resolved shear stress, which is calculated by projecting the assumed stress state onto planes of different orientations (Wallace, 1951; Bott, 1959).Figure 13A shows a strong correlation between the observed and hypothetical slip directions suggesting a cause and effect relationship, and thus it would seem that the stress state that controls the direction of fault slip at seismogenic depths also factors into controlling the complex expression of rupture zone fabric developed within a few hundred meters of the surface. One important relationship displayed in Figure 13A is that all subvertical faults regardless of strike are predicted to be dominated by strike slip. This also implies that regardless of topographic and other perturbations that may reorient principal stress axes, subvertical faults are mechanically favored to accommodate the lateral component of oblique slip. The geometry of any low-angle fault requires that scarps farthest from the surface trace of the fault dip more steeply than those closer to the surface trace (Fig. 13B). Therefore, more steeply dipping faults should preferentially filter off the strike slip component of offset leaving the up-dip section of detachment fault and any of its fault splays with the remaining dip slip component (Fig. 13B). This explains why normal-sense dip slip is consistently partitioned into the coseismic scarps closest to the surface trace of the Paso Superior detachment and dextral strike slip is accommodated by scarps farther from the trace (Figs. 12A and 12B).We demonstrate that as fault zones increase in complexity and width, so does the expression of coseismic surface rupture (Figs. 3A and 4), which supports the strong link between fault zone architecture and coseismic rupture zone fabrics as observed by Teran et al. (2015). Additionally, we have documented a suite of associated structures and fabrics that occur together in different types of fault zones, which are schematically shown in Figure 14. Fault zones of the type 1 class generally do not exceed 70 m in width and have a single well-developed core that is typically defined by a zone of foliated clay gouge of ∼1 m in thickness. In this fault class, coseismic slip is strongly concentrated onto a single well-defined principal scarp that reactivates the clay gouge core (Figs. 5A and 6). Typically, these principal displacement scarps accommodate >90% of the total coseismic slip (Fig. 4A). Fault zone complexity increases considerably in the type 2 class, which is characterized by a broader zone (50–150 m) of overlapping cores, but none of these are as well developed as the main core associated with the simple narrow class. This widening of the fault zone is accompanied by widening of the coseismic rupture zone and an increase in the number of scarps. In type 2 fault sections, it is difficult to identify a single principal scarp, and scarps with the greatest coseismic displacement are generally limited in both along-strike length (<600 m) and the relative amount of coseismic slip that they accommodate (30%–60%; Fig. 4B). In this way, the rupture fabric strongly reflects the fault zone architecture characterized by multiple overlapping cores and subsidiary faults. Rupture zones of the type 3 class are similar to those of the type 2 class, but they are distinguished by abundant subsidiary faults and strong coseismic slip partitioning. These widest and most complex rupture zones are associated with the widest and most complex fault zones. However, coseismic surface rupture is generally not restricted to the confines of the long-lived fault zone. Instead most scarp-forming faults splay from the main fault to form new ramps that uplift the footwall or occur as extensive and structurally complex arrays in the immediate hanging wall (Fig. 14C). Scarps that have <30% of the total coseismic slip were observed in all fault classes.The diversity of fault-zone architecture and related rupture zone fabrics in the Sierra Cucapah provides an opportunity to assess their underlying controls. Yoshioka (1986) identified multiple factors that affect gouge production in laboratory experiments including displacement, rock strength, normal stress, existence of gouge prior to slip, and mode of slip. Based on measurements of the amount of gouge produced in laboratory conditions, rock strength and normal stress are by far the most important of the five factors (Yoshioka, 1986). In examples of natural faults, cumulative displacement has been shown to affect some components of fault zone architecture such as the abundance of gouge in fault cores (e.g., Scholz, 1987; Hull, 1988), as well as the intensity of fracturing and overall width of damage zones (Shipton and Cowie, 2001; Mitchell and Faulkner, 2009). Protolith strength is also thought to strongly affect the width and number of cores (e.g., Faulkner et al., 2003). Given the importance of normal stress in experimental gouge production, surprisingly little work has been done to examine its effects on the architectural expression of faults. In this study we show how fault orientation can be used as a proxy for normal stress. Additionally we compare the relative importance of displacement, protolith, and orientation-controlled normal stress on the resulting architectural variations of faults in the Sierra Cucapah.We find that cumulative displacement on faults with several kilometers of slip does not appreciably affect fault zone architecture compared to other factors. One of the faults with the greatest cumulative slip in the study area is the Laguna Salada fault. In terms of the range of architectural styles documented in this study, the Laguna Salada fault is most similar to the type 1 class represented by the Pescadores fault (Table 1; Figs. 4A, 5A, and 6). Both faults have a single high-strain core and cut quartzo-feldspathic protoliths. They also have similar orientations and oblique dextral-normal slip directions. However, the Laguna Salada fault has accommodated more than twice as much cumulative slip (>11 km versus 4.4 km). The Paso Superior detachment is the only other fault in the Sierra Cucapah with cumulative slip that approaches that of the Laguna Salada fault, yet its damage zone, hosting multiple fault cores, belongs to the type 3 class of faults at the opposite end of the spectrum of structural complexity. Therefore, structural relations in the Sierra Cucapah show that faults with much different cumulative slip have similar architecture and those with similar slip have radically different architecture, which suggests that the magnitude of slip has the smallest effect on fault zone architecture.Protolith appears to exhibit a stronger control on gouge production than displacement. The two extremes of architectural variations in the Sierra Cucapah are represented by faults that have very different protoliths. The wide complex fault zone of the Paso Superior detachment is developed in a sequence of phyllosilicate-rich metasedimentary gneiss with a strong preexisting foliation. In contrast, many simple narrow fault zones in the Sierra Cucapah are developed from quartzo-feldspathic protoliths of the granitoid plutonic complex. Laboratory experiments demonstrate an inverse relationship between production of gouge and the strength of the host rock (Yoshioka, 1986) and quartzo-feldspathic protoliths are much stronger than phyllosilicate protoliths, which commonly have a preexisting mechanical fissility that is susceptible to reactivation (Faulkner et al., 2003). There is a general perception that cataclasis of a quartzo-feldspathic protolith is associated with strain weakening, which has a positive feedback with strain localization and results in the development of a narrow fault zone with a single high-strain core (Chester and Logan, 1986; Chester et al., 1993; Faulkner et al., 2003, 2008). In contrast, phyllosilicate host rocks are associated with multicore fault zones, which are thought to develop because of strain hardening during cataclasis (Faulkner et al., 2003, 2008).The frictional strength of faults is typically assumed to obey Byerlee’s (1978) law with a coefficient of friction of 0.6–0.85. However, most of these friction measurements were performed on joints and other bare rock surfaces and more recent work has shown that clay rich gouges are consistently weak, with a steady-state coefficient of sliding friction of <0.35 (Saffer and Marone 2003; Ikari et al., 2009). Collettini et al. (2009) showed that even in rocks with relatively low abundance of phyllosilicates (10%–30%), the frictional properties of the rock may approach that of the weak phyllosilicate phases. Most of the phyllosilicate phases observed in fault zones are secondary and derived from grain-size reduction and synkinematic hydration reactions associated with shearing. However, metamorphic rocks containing abundant primary phyllosilicates are also common in continental crust. Significant weakening associated with the reactivation of metamorphic anisotropies is well documented (e.g., Donath, 1961). As proposed by Faulkner et al. (2003, 2008), phyllosilicate-rich protoliths and the fault rocks derived from them should have a very low contrast in frictional strength. As we argue below, the process of cataclasis of anisotropic phyllosilicate rich protolith is inherently characterized by strain hardening, which leads to the development of wide multicored fault zones.Fault orientation controls the expected ratio of normal stress to shear stress, which in this transtentional setting should be higher for faults with lower dip (e.g., Fletcher et al., 2016). Indeed, one of the most surprising results from both this study and the companion paper by Teran et al. (2015) is that fault zone architecture changes systematically with orientation, becoming increasingly wider and more complex with decreasing dip of the structure (Fig. 3). For the examples we describe here, however, both elevated relative normal stress and a weaker protolith may be responsible for the wide Paso Superior fault zone. Thus to discriminate these effects, we turn to the central Borrego fault example. The central Borrego fault has cumulative slip (6–8 km) that is intermediate between that of the Pescadores fault (∼4 km) and Laguna Salada fault (>11 km). All of these fault sections cut strong quartz-feldspathic protoliths, but the former shares almost no similarities in structural style with the latter two (Table 1). The central Borrego fault zone is characterized by penetrative fracturing and crush breccia that is distributed throughout its wide type 2 fault zone. None of the high-strain zones within the Borrego fault zone reach the same thickness and degree of comminution as the single fault core observed on the type 1 Pescadores fault zone. Therefore, although strain is not as intense in the central Borrego fault, it is more broadly distributed through a fault zone that is 3–5 times wider. Besides the vastly different fault zone architectures, the only significant difference between these faults is their orientations. The narrow type 1 faults are both steeply dipping, whereas, the wide type 2 fault is moderately dipping (Table 1).Further evidence for the effect of orientation on fault zone architecture is provided by along strike variations with dip of some of the faults in the Sierra Cucapah. North of the moderately dipping central section, the Borrego fault becomes subvertical, and this change in orientation is accompanied by the transition into a narrow type 1 fault zone (Table 1; Fig. 5B). Here strain becomes concentrated onto a single core composed of foliated gouge and the 2010 EMC rupture zone fabric is dominated by a single principal displacement scarp (Fig. 5B; Dorsey et al., 2017; Teran et al., 2015). In yet another example, the widest and most complex rupture zone fabrics developed in the 2010 EMC event are observed along the ∼20° dipping flat sections of the Paso Superior detachment. In contrast, the along-strike ramp sections of the Paso Superior fault (40°–60° dip) exhibit a 105-fold decrease in rupture-zone thickness (Figs. 3, 4C, 10B, and 10C). Because the ramp sections offset structurally higher portions of the fault zone, these faults have developed with far less slip than the master Paso Superior detachment into which they root (Fig. 14C). Thus the along-strike occurrence of ramps and flats along the Paso Superior detachment coincides well with the transition from type 1 to type 3 fault zones, respectively.We propose that the correlation of fault zone architecture with orientation can be explained by considering how orientation determines the traction that a fault experiences. All fault sections in this study that were activated in the 2010 EMC earthquake and coseismic slip directions, despite their great diversity, are consistent with a uniform regional stress state, which was derived by Fletcher et al. (2016) as previously described for Figure 13. A Mohr plot of this stress state demonstrates that the observed variation in normal stress on individual fault sections approaches the applied differential stress (Fig. 14), which is of the order of tens of megapascals at depths of earthquake nucleation (e.g., Fletcher et al., 2016). In this transtensional tectonic regime, the degree of misorientation and resolved normal stress both increase as fault dip decreases (Fig. 14D). The three classes of faults that we have documented in this study plot in the Mohr diagram over distinct ranges of slip tendencies, and generally faults of types 1, 2, and 3 have high, intermediate, and low slip tendencies, respectively (Fig. 14).Laboratory experiments (e.g., Yoshioka, 1986) and numerical modeling (e.g., Moore and Lockner, 2007) demonstrate a strong positive correlation between gouge production and normal stress. This is consistent with qualitative observations from the Sierra Cucapah where gently dipping and wide fault zones with multiple cores generally contain more gouge than narrow single-core faults. However, the expected variation in gouge production alone does not explain the complex branching and development of multiple high-strain cores in a single fault zone.Faults oriented at a high angle to the maximum compressive stress experience high normal stress and are considered misoriented because they have the greatest resistance to activation (Fig. 14D). In order to reach criticality and slip, misoriented faults require low-frictional strength (Carpenter et al., 2011; Lockner et al., 2011), high pore pressure (e.g., Rice, 1992; Axen, 1992), and/or high differential stress (e.g., Nieto-Samaniego and Alaniz-Alvarez, 1995, 1997; Nieto-Samaniego, 1999; Axen, 2004; Fletcher et al., 2016). Fletcher et al. (2016) showed how stress can rise to the magnitudes required to make misoriented faults slip, even in the presence of nearby optimally oriented faults that yield at much lower states of differential stress. However, regardless of the specifics of any given stress condition, a fault must somehow reach criticality in order to slip. All of the factors that affect criticality should operate on the entire fault zone. Therefore, if the misoriented surfaces in a fault zone are able to reach criticality, others with more optimal orientations should also be critically loaded. We propose that the frictional reactivation of slip surfaces with a greater range of orientations is one important factor that causes the branching of slip onto multiple paths and leads to a widening of the fault zone.In severely misoriented fault zones, it could be possible for coseismic rupture to leave the fault zone altogether and follow more optimally oriented faults in adjacent blocks, which is essentially what we observe along the Paso Superior detachment. Flat sections of the detachment are associated with broad scarp arrays developed in the hanging wall immediately adjacent to the surface trace of the fault zone. Alternatively, ramp sections are controlled by splays that emanate from near its base and cut across the fabric of the long-lived fault zone (Fig. 14C). Coseismic scarps in both ramp and flat settings either leave the long-lived, severely misoriented fault zone or cut across it. Similar structural relationships are commonly observed in other well studied examples of seismically active low-angle normal faults (e.g., Caskey et al., 1996; Axen et al., 1999; Hayman et al., 2003; Numelin et al., 2007; Spelz et al., 2008; Fletcher and Spelz, 2009). Fletcher and Spelz (2009) proposed that the near-surface transfer of slip from the low-angle master fault to more optimally oriented high-angle scarp-forming faults occurs because the factors that are thought to allow seismogenic slip on low-angle faults at depth, such as near-lithostatic pore fluid pressure (Axen, 1992) or rotation of principal stress axes (Yin, 1989; Melosh, 1990), are not as likely to operate near the surface. Also, near the surface, high-angle faults are not as likely to be pinned against other faults within the overall fault network, allowing these to be activated as slip on a low-angle fault propagates to the surface.The San Andreas fault is the main plate boundary fault between the Pacific and North America plates (Fig. 1) and has accommodated hundreds of kilometers of cumulative slip (Matthews, 1976). It extends ∼1300 km and transects numerous distinct tectonostratigraphic terranes such as the Franciscan accretionary wedge, underplated Pelona-Orocopia-Rand schist, the Mesozoic batholiths of the Sierra Nevada and Peninsular Ranges, as well as a diverse suite of metamorphic and plutonic rocks of the Proterozoic North American craton. Two contrasting sections of the San Andreas fault, discussed below, demonstrate the relative effects of host rock lithology, mode of slip, cumulative slip, and normal stress on the internal structure of a fault zone.The Parkfield section of the San Andreas fault in central California, USA, consists of a complex zone of faulting that is ∼3 km wide and made up of overlapping strands including the Buzzard Canyon, San Andreas, and Gold Hills faults, each of which contains multiple cores (Rymer et al., 2006; Bradbury et al., 2011). Host rock lithology is thought to play a primary role in controlling the dominantly creeping mode of slip in this section, and high-strain gouge zones contain talc and other weak phyllosilicates derived from hydrothermal alteration and shearing of serpentine-rich ultramafic rocks in contact with arkosic sandstones, both of which are abundant within the Franciscan mélange (Moore and Rymer, 2007, 2012).The Mojave section of the San Andreas fault in southern California predominantly cuts schist and quartzo-feldspathic rocks derived from Proterozoic basement and the Mesozoic batholith (Barrows et al., 1985). Mode of slip is thought to be dominated by stick-slip and this section was activated most recently in the 1857 Mw 7.8 Fort Tejon earthquake, which had as much as 8 m of right-lateral coseismic slip (Sieh, 1978; Zielke et al., 2010). Near Littlerock, California, the San Andreas system is composed of six major strands including from NE to SW: the Littlerock fault, San Andreas main fault, northern and southern Nadeau faults, Punchbowl fault, and Soledad fault as well as several other unnamed strands (Barrows et al., 1985; Dor et al., 2006). The faults are subparallel in strike, define an anastomosing configuration and each strand represents a distinct core in a complex multicore fault zone that varies in width from 1 to 3 km (Barrows et al., 1985; Dor et al., 2006). It is difficult to unequivocally define the slip history of each individual strand, but each of them has accommodated tens of kilometers of slip since the early Pliocene (4.5–4.0 Ma; Barrows et al., 1985; Powell, 1993). Most late Quaternary slip has been concentrated on the main strand of the San Andreas fault, which is thought to be much younger than the other strands, having initiated in the Pleistocene. Nonetheless, Sieh (1978) proposed that an observed slip deficit of the 1857 Fort Tejon rupture near Palmdale, California can be explained by having additional coseismic slip partitioned onto adjacent strands in the overlapping system.One factor that is consistent with our example in the Sierra Cucapah and may best explain the kilometer-scale width and complexity of the San Andreas fault zone is high normal stress. The San Andreas is severely misoriented and typically forms angles of 60°–90° to the horizontal maximum compressive stress (e.g., Zoback et al., 1987; Yang and Hauksson, 2013; Fletcher et al., 2014). Explaining the mechanics of slip on the San Andreas has been one of the greatest conundrums in earth science and leading hypotheses include: (1) high pore pressure with stress rotation in the fault zone (Rice 1992; Faulkner et al., 2006), (2) heterogeneous friction with the San Andreas fault as the weakest in the system of faults (Lockner et al., 2011), and (3) uniform friction among multiple faults that form an interlocking network with the San Andreas as the strongest member due to its severe misorientation (Fletcher et al., 2016). Regardless of the controversy associated with slip mechanics, there is a strong consensus that the San Andreas fault has a very low slip tendency and thus must have very high applied normal stress.Faulkner et al. (2008) presented a detailed structural analysis of two other large-scale strike-slip faults with wide multi-cored fault zones. Despite strong similarities of fault zone architecture, the Carboneras fault of southeastern Spain and the Caleta Coloso fault of northern Chile differ markedly in protolith (graphitic mica schist versus granodioritic plutonic rocks), cumulative slip (40 versus >5 km), and tectonic setting (transtension versus transpression), respectively (Stapel et al., 1996; Faulkner et al., 2008). However, the one parameter that is common to both of them, is low slip tendency and thus high applied normal stress. The Carboneras fault regionally forms an angle of 60° to the maximum compressive stress, and locally it becomes as high as 90° (Stapel et al., 1996; Faulkner et al., 2008). The Caleta Coloso fault is oriented 80°–90° from the modern regional maximum compressive stress (Faulkner et al., 2008; Heidbach et al., 2009).The Gole Larghe fault zone, which splays from the Tonale line in the Italian Alps, is another example of a well-studied wide complex fault zone. Despite having accommodated only 1100 m of total dextral displacement, the Gole Larghe fault zone is ∼600 m wide and composed of numerous overlapping pseudotachylyte and cataclasite bearing faults in addition to two prominent zones of 2-m-thick cataclasites (Di Toro and Pennacchioni, 2005; Smith et al., 2013). The fault zone is developed in quartzofeldspathic rich protolith that forms part of the Adamello tonalitic batholith (Di Toro and Pennacchioni, 2005; Smith et al., 2013). Pseudotachylytes from the fault zone yield 40Ar/39Ar–ages of 29.8 ± 0.4 Ma and their presence indicate seismogenic stick-slip behavior (Di Toro and Pennacchioni, 2005). The Oligocene maximum compressive stress in this region is oriented subhorizontal and trends NNW, which is nearly perpendicular to the E-striking fault. Therefore, the Gole Larghe is yet another example of a severely misoriented fault with a wide complex fault zone architecture.This brief survey demonstrates that wide multi-cored fault zones are not limited to specific protoliths, certain ranges of cumulative displacement, nor any particular mode of slip. Quite to the contrary, Table 2 shows that wide multi-cored fault zones span the extremes of each of these parameters. The only factor that all of these global occurrences have in common is misorientation with respect to the greatest principal compressive stress, which is consistent with our findings in the Sierra Cucapah.The relocation and redistribution of shearing that leads to the formation of multiple high-strain zones in a single fault requires some form of strain hardening (e.g., Chester and Chester, 1998; Di Toro and Pennacchioni, 2005; Cowgill et al., 2004a; Faulkner et al., 2008). Regardless of protolith, strain hardening and the development of wide multicored faults may result from the healing of gouge with compaction and fluid induced cementation, which gives rise to dilatancy strengthening (Morrow et al., 1982; Marone et al., 1990; Marone, 1998a, 1998b; Hirakawa and Ma, 2016). This hypothesis predicts that abandoned fault cores should be more strongly compacted and/or mineralized than active fault cores, but such evidence has yet to be well documented. In the Sierra Cucapah, syn-kinematic alteration is not restricted to wide complex fault zones, and relatively simple single-cored faults like the Laguna Salada fault are associated with extensive hydrothermal alteration.Due to the expected low strength contrast of faults developed in anisotropic phyllosilicate protoliths, small changes in strength of gouge could have large effects on the localization of future increments of shearing. We propose that in such faults, cataclasis may be inherently characterized by strain hardening. Cataclasite and gouge not only have a smaller grain size, but these rocks are also likely to have a diminished grain-shape fabric (e.g., Heilbronner and Keulen, 2006) and alignment of phyllosilicate grains compared to a strongly foliated metasedimentary protolith. This should reduce the continuity of slip surfaces defined by aligned mica and lead to a strengthening of the fault rock compared to its protolith. Collettini et al. (2009) demonstrated that powdered samples with smaller grain size and no preferred grain alignment have a twofold increase in frictional strength compared to equivalent rocks that are naturally foliated. Another effect of cataclasis is to change the rate-state frictional properties from velocity weakening of the protolith to velocity strengthening of the gouge.We propose that the predicted strain hardening of multi-cored fault zones is associated with the one parameter that all of these examples have in common: severe misorientation and high normal stress. The difference in normal stress of two faults that form angles of 30° (optimally oriented) and 80° (severely misoriented) to the maximum compressive stress is ∼72% of the applied differential stress. Yield strength, which is proportional to normal stress, may be several times greater for misoriented faults compared to optimally oriented faults. Therefore, we agree with Cowgill et al. (2004b) who proposed that the rotation of a fault relative to principal stress should result in either strain hardening or strain softening.Our proposed genetic association of misorientation with wide multicore fault zones does not require these faults to have experienced high normal stress throughout their entire slip history. As orogenic strain accumulates by progressive general shear, a deformation path that consists of both pure and simple shear components, all planar markers progressively rotate toward the principal extension axis, which commonly is oriented at a high angle, if not perpendicular, to the regional maximum compressive stress (Fossen and Tikoff, 1993; Tikoff and Wojtal, 1999). Therefore, all faults, regardless of their initial orientation, should rotate to progressively greater angles of misorientation relative to regional stress. Likewise principal stress axes can also rotate with respect to stationary features in the crust due to a change in tectonic loading. Such a mechanism, associated with basin and range extension, may be responsible for the high angle of principal normal stress with respect to the San Andreas fault. We propose that as long as some of the cumulative slip has occurred under high normal stress, a fault may develop a wide multicore architecture. With only 1100 m of total dextral displacement (Di Toro and Pennacchioni, 2005), the Gole Larghe fault zone demonstrates an example of the lower limit of cumulative slip needed to generate a wide complex fault zone.Field relationships in the Sierra Cucapah demonstrate a strong correlation between the style of faulting associated with the infinitesimal strain of a single earthquake rupture and the internal structure of the long-lived fault zone. We recognize three distinct types of faults. Type 1 faults have narrow damage zones (<100 m in width) and a single high-strain core. Coseismic slip is contained within the fault zone and highly concentrated (60%–90%) onto a single principal scarp that coincides with the fault core. Type 2 faults have wide damage zones (several hundred meters in width) with multiple overlapping high-strain cores. Coseismic slip is widely distributed on multiple (5–20) overlapping scarps that exist entirely within the fault zone. Type 3 faults also have wide damage zones with multiple cores, and additionally, they are more strongly affected by subsidiary faults, some of which cut previously formed cores and extend several kilometers beyond the limits of the damage zone. Coseismic slip is widely distributed on multiple scarps and becomes transferred to subsidiary faults that diverge and remerge with the main fault along strike. Kinematic partitioning of oblique coseismic slip is most strongly developed in type 3 faults compared to the other two classes. Even in the cases of greatest rupture complexity, all paleoscarps from earlier events were reactivated by scarp-forming faults of the most recent earthquake, which indicates high repeatability of rupture fabrics and kinematics in consecutive events.Our work supports the widely accepted hypothesis that strain softening leads to progressive localization of slip to form simple narrow fault zones that have a single high-strain core, whereas, strain hardening leads to the redistribution of slip and the development of wide complex multi-cored fault zones. Grain-size reduction and alteration reactions increase phyllosilicate concentrations, which drives progressive weakening that localizes strain into the core of a fault. However, if the host rock is already rich in phyllosilicates, such as in the cases of metasedimentary schist and gneiss, the degree of cataclastic weakening is greatly diminished. In these cases, cataclasis itself may result in strengthening by disrupting preexisting foliations and reducing the continuity of slip surfaces in the rock. Additionally, when protolith-core strength contrast is low, the small changes associated with the velocity strengthening properties of cataclasite and gouge may be sufficient to relocate strain to less deformed areas of the fault zone that are characterized by velocity weakening.Many fault sections in the Sierra Cucapah and throughout the world display wide multicore architecture (Table 1), but are developed in granitoid rocks, which is somewhat counterintuitive given the large expected contrast in the strength of protolith and core. However, all such examples presented in this study correspond to faults that are severely misoriented with respect to the greatest principal normal stress. Therefore, regardless of the physical properties of the gouge and cataclasite that they contain, the cores of these faults must be greatly strengthened by high magnitudes of the applied normal stress.It stands to reason that wear and damage should increase with the amount of cumulative slip accommodated across a fault, but several factors work to inhibit the existence of a straight forward relationship. The rate of gouge production decreases significantly with progressive deformation as fracture energy from slip events further reduces grain size of pre-existing gouge without adding appreciably to its volume (Yoshioka, 1986). Therefore, faults that undergo progressive weakening should produce less gouge and wear than those that experience progressive strengthening. This suggests that orientation-controlled variations in the applied normal stress and protolith-core strength contrasts are essential to consider when assessing the role of cumulative slip on fault zone architecture.This work was financed by Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología, Mexico City, Mexico (CB-2014-239818) and the Southern California Earthquake Center (SCEC), Los Angeles, California, USA (EAR-1033462 and U.S. Geological Survey G12AC20038, SCEC paper 10004). The paper was greatly improved by reviews from Victoria Langenheim, Deven McPhillips, Jaime Delano, Michael Taylor, and An Yin. We are grateful for technical support provided by Jose Mojarro and Luis Gradilla. We also thank Jaime Delano and other reviewers for their suggestions and comments that greatly improved the paper.

中文翻译:

控制断层带构造的因素分析以及断层定向相对于区域应力的重要性

2010年在墨西哥下加利福尼亚州北部发生的7.2级El Mayor–Cucapah(EMC)地震造成了级联破裂,并通过几何形态多样的相交断层传播。自中新世晚期以来,根据低温热年代学,动能变化和变形构造,这些断层已从6-10 km的深度发掘出来。断裂带容纳了EMC事件的1-6 m的地震震滑,这些断裂带显示了完整的建筑风格,从具有单个高应变核心的简单窄断裂带(宽度<100 m)到复杂的宽断裂带多个吻合高应变芯的区域(宽度> 100 m)。随着断层带的复杂性和宽度的增加,所观测到的宽度(20–200 m)的整个光谱会逐渐变大,同震滑动变得更广泛地分布在形成更广泛阵列的大量陡峭带上。因此,单次地震的表面破裂的无穷滑动强烈地复制了在长期地震史上在深成地震壳层断层上滑动的许多构造要素。我们发现,在实验室实验中控制泥生产的因素如原石,法向应力和位移也影响了自然断层的构造复杂性。富含层状硅酸盐沉积的片麻岩中形成的断层带通常比石英长石质花岗岩中的断层带更宽,更复杂。我们假设在富含层状硅酸盐的基质岩中发育的断层的整体弱点和低强度对比会导致应变硬化并形成宽的多链断层带。断层定向也强烈影响断层带的复杂性,我们发现其随着断层倾角的减小而增加。我们将其归因于假定与该伸展构造环境兼容的均匀应力场的,在缓倾断层上具有较高的解析法向应力。在具有高法向应力的未定向表面上允许滑动的条件也会在断层带中产生更加优化定向的滑动系统失效,从而促进复杂的分支和多个高应变铁心的发育。总体,我们发现,断层带的构造并不需要受到累积滑动量差异的强烈影响,而是可以由原生岩和相对法向应力更强地控制。大多数断层的特征是穿透裂缝的区域,裂缝的强度随着应变的增加而逐渐增加。断层带的某些部分,最终形成被认为是断层核心的切屑或白云母带(例如,Chester和Logan,1986; Caine等,1996)。渗透压裂损伤区域的厚度(数十至数百米)比高应变断层岩心的宽度大几个数量级,而高应变断层岩心的宽度通常在几厘米至几米之间(例如,Shipton和Cowie ,2001)。断层带的内部结构或结构是由高应变岩心的数量和分布,延伸到乡村岩石的破坏带的整体裂缝宽度和强度以及贯穿的辅助断层的存在来定义的。在某些情况下,甚至超出了主要断层带的界限(例如,Faulkner等人,2010)。研究断层力学的主要目标是了解断层带的内部结构如何与其力学相关联。 (Biegel和Sammis,2004; Frost等,2009)。断层带的内部结构被认为受位移(例如,Scholz,1987; Shipton和Cowie,2001),岩性(例如,Faulkner等人,2003、2008),预先存在的织物(例如,Collettini和Sibson)的影响。 (2001年)和深度,后者控制温度,围压和流体压力的梯度(例如,Sibson,1977; Butler等,1995; Wibberley等,2008)。地震间的愈合可能会显着改变断层的力学行为,并且被认为是由于断裂后的断层岩石的地震后压实和岩化作用而发生的(例如,Karner等,1997)。要了解所有这些变量之间复杂的相互作用,需要对实验室实验和力学建模的结果进行整合,并从结构和地震学研究中直接观察断层本身。断层带的内部结构或构造不仅反映了其物理性质性能,还包括机械性能和打滑方式。福克纳等。(2003年,2010)用两种截然不同的建筑风格描述了断裂带。第一个是具有单个高应变芯的简单断裂带。许多工人认识到滑倒和与cataclasis相关的各种转化减弱过程之间存在正反馈(例如,Chester等,1993; Yan等,2001)。渐进的应变软化被认为会导致断层带向建筑简化的方向发展,剪力集中在一个单一的,狭窄的岩心中,该岩心位于易碎的断裂带内(例如,Chester等,1993; Ben-Zion和Sammis,2003; Cowgill等人,2004a; Rockwell和Ben Zion,2007; Frost等,2009)。由于地震破裂的成核和传播需要滑移定位,因此单芯断层所适应的位移模式被认为以粘滑为主(Chester和Logan,1986)。但是,这种断层带演化模型不能解释复杂断层带的发生,这种断层带宽得多且具有多个重叠的高应变核心,构成了福克纳等人描述的第二种建筑风格。(2003)。假设断层带向结构复杂性的演化是由于应变硬化导致的,从而导致滑移重新定位并导致多个重叠的高应变岩心的发育(Faulkner等,2003,2008; Cowgill等,2004a)。 )。西班牙的Carboneras断层和美国加利福尼亚的圣安德列斯断层的帕克菲尔德断层是两个广泛研究的多核断层带的实例(Rymer等,2006; Bradbury等,2011)。两者都蕴藏在富含层状硅酸盐的软弱的乡村岩石中,并显示出具有稳定蠕变的混合模式位移,伴随着大量小地震,这些地震被解释为断层表面的局部斑块经历了粘滑滑动,并被稳定的滑动区域包围(Rubin等, 1999; Faulkner et al。,2003)。墨西哥下加利福尼亚北部的库拉卡山脉(Sierra Cucapah)是理想的天然实验室,用于测试假设的断层构造控制措施。它位于太平洋板块和北美板块之间的剪切轴附近,并包含各种断层,这些断层可以适应三维拉伸应变。个别断层的累积滑动,原岩和运动学变化很大,这使我们能够评估各种参数在生成具有一系列建筑风格的断层带中的作用。重要的是,Sierra Cucapah的所有断层都是活跃的,许多断层在2010年弯矩震级(MW)7.2 El Mayor–Cucapah(EMC)地震中滑动(Fletcher等人,2014)。这项研究建立在Teran等人的工作之上。(2015年)记录了断裂带构造如何随着同震滑动演化,以及反过来,该构造如何影响破裂传播。我们提供的现场证据表明,断层的构造受到其相对于区域主应力的方向的强烈影响。我们发现,随着断层上滑动趋势或剪应力与正应力之比的降低(Morris等,1996; Tong和Yin,2011),其宽度和结构的复杂性增加。总的来说,我们表明在实验室环境中已知会增加断层泥产量的因素,例如原生石流变,正应力和累积滑移(例如,Yoshioka,1986),也会增加自然断层的宽度和结构复杂性。隆起的晶体基底地块,在周围的裂谷谷底上方浮雕上升了1 km(图1)。板缘断层在北下加利福尼亚州这个偏远的沙漠地区异常暴露,自中新世晚期(Axen等,2000)以来,已从6-10 km的深度挖出,这对应于中新世的中下部。产地震壳。断层的方向范围很广,单个断层的走向在290°至040°之间变化,倾角在90°至20°之间变化(Fletcher等,2014; Teran等,2015)。在地图视图中,断层较短(20–30 km),不连续并终止于与其他断层的相交处(图2)。在三个维度上,该断层系统形成了一个复杂的互锁网络,从而引起了断层之间的密切机械相互作用(Fletcher等人,2016)。2010年7.2兆瓦的EMC地震表明,复杂的断层网络作为一个集成系统而失败,其强度受到支持更高水平剪应力的横切错向断层的控制(Fletcher et al。,2016)。复杂网络中的故障会导致运动学多样性。从纯正倾角滑移到右旋走滑滑移,剪切力都有所不同,但是大多数断层具有斜滑移,这是由正常剪切力和横向剪切力的组合定义的(Fletcher等,2014)。尽管变化很大,滑移方向不是随机的。Fletcher等。(2016年)表明,断层定向的增量变化与滑动倾角的增量变化相关。此外,他们表明,同震滑动方向与均匀区域应力状态(例如Wallace,1951; Bott,1959)所预测的变化一致,最大主应力为垂直,最小为水平趋势ENE,中间主应力为最小。接近最大值,并且趋势为NNW。这种应力状态与在拉伸剪切带中预期的长三轴应变一致(例如,Fossen等,1994)。因此,需要考虑到Sierra Cucapah断层的复杂性及其所有多样性,以适应该张应力板缘的三维应变。塞拉库卡(Sierra Cucapah)的结晶基底是侏罗纪和白垩纪的变质和深成岩的岩性学上的不同序列(Barnard,1968; Axen等,2000)。这些岩石围绕着库拉卡山脉(Sierra Cucapah),与断层并列,这些断层与厚度达4 km的同化沉积层序并置(Kelm,1971;García-Abdeslem等,2001; Fletcher和Spelz,2009;Chanes-Martínez等,2014)。从中新世晚期到现在的年龄范围(Seim,1992; Dorsey和Martin-Barajas,1999;Chanes-Martínez等,2014;图2)。该范围的中央部分包含一个由白垩纪晚期组成的,分散的,按区域划分的岩盘岩(Barnard,1968年)。岩床具有从未叶状到弱叶状的花岗闪长岩(Cucapah花岗闪长岩)的前缘岩心,侵入了强烈叶酸的片状火成片麻岩(在图2中为La Puerta斜纹岩)中的镁铁质但成分不均一的复合体。Barnard(1968)沿着花岗二叠纪岩心的外部侵入接触,绘制了一个中等组成的片状岩石单元,他将其称为黑克拉通侵入相。该岩石单元沿走向收缩并膨胀,某些地方的厚度可达2 km。山脉Cucapah的北部三分之一,以及紧邻南部的El El Mayor的大部分地区,都由大量的上斜角岩相变沉积片麻岩(图2中的绿色单元; Barnard,1968年)所主导。丰富的横切侵入式接触和延展变形岩石单元厚度的系统变化提供了丰富的标记,这些标记可作为刺穿点来确定各个断层的累积偏移。下面我们总结了这项研究中所研究的主要断层的几何形状,横切关系和累积偏移。拉古纳·萨拉达断层定义了塞​​拉库卡帕山脉的西界,并控制了一个与拉古纳·萨拉达盆地北半部并列的尖锐线性山锋(图1; Barnard,1968; Chora-Salvador,2003; Mueller和Rockwell,1991,1995; Axen和Fletcher,1998; Fletcher和Spelz,2009)。根据重力模型,沿拉古纳·萨拉达断层的盆地填充厚度达到3-4公里(Kelm,1971;García-Abdeslem等,2001; Fletcher和Spelz,2009)。在库卡帕山脉与市长山脉的交界处,向西的卡纳达·大卫分队将14 km的水平位移转移到拉古纳萨拉达断层上(Fletcher和Spelz,2009)(图2)。Laguna Salada断层沿其南部测绘范围,将El El Mayor的前石器时代的沉积沉积岩与库卡帕山脉的深成岩相对(图2)。这些岩石具有类似的屋面历史(Axen等,1998),这表明在这里穿过拉古纳·萨达塔断层几乎没有垂直运动。因此,其累积的右侧滑移必须大于11 km,这是不同基岩之间裸露的断层接触的长度.Pescadores断层从Laguna Salada断层张开,并沿着Sierra Cucapah波峰西侧向北延伸(图2;巴纳德(1968)。一般来说,Pescadores断层为次平面,走向约310°,向东北倾斜(约75°)。Borrego断层是从Laguna Salada断层向北延伸的另一张张线(图2)。它的曲线映射迹线向东北跨越很宽的倾角范围(40°–84°)(Barnard,1968; Fletcher等人,2014)。两个断层上的累积偏移可能受白垩纪Cucapah火成岩体的黑克拉通相的亚垂直挤压形成的穿刺线偏移的限制(图2)。我们在Pescadores断层上认识到约4.4 km的右旋滑移,在Borrego断层上认识到6–8 km的右旋滑移。Pescadores断层在其北限附近分叉,并被Zaragosa脱离(图2),而Borrego断层则切断了该脱离。Borrego断层的直接悬挂壁由第三纪裂谷盆地沉积物组成,这些沉积物可能代表了从Laguna Salada盆地的古边缘捕获的被解散的条带(图2).Paso Superior脱离区的倾角低至20°,且呈曲线平面表面由几个突出的配子定义(图2; Fletcher等人,2014)。观察到两个明显的斜坡部分,其中倾斜度增加到40°-55°(Fletcher等人,2014)。断层控制着一个宽泛的沉积盆地,其宽度为3-5公里。整个Paso上脱离带的累计偏移的垂直分量估计至少为5-6 km,这是自中新世晚期以来的构造放出量最小,这是根据热年代学在该地区具有相似结构关系的其他脱离断层上用热年代学记录的(Axen等人,2000)。由于断层的浅倾和它所容纳的右旋滑动的强力成分,帕索上级脱离的累积滑动可能是垂直顶棚的两到三倍。断层带结构代表内部构造剪切产生的结构和织物的类型,并根据三个主要岩石单元进行定义:未破裂的原生岩,破坏带和断层岩心(例如,Chester和Logan,1986; Caine等,1996)。大部分滑移发生在断层岩心中,断层岩心由各种高应变断层岩组成,包括角砾岩,断层泥,崩落石和超崩落石(Mitchell和Faulkner,2009,以及其中的参考文献)。断裂带可以有多个核心,更多的核心反映出更高的复杂性(Faulkner等,2003,2008; Mitchell和Faulkner,2009),尽管并非所有故障核心都需要同时滑脱。损坏区域是围绕岩心的重度破碎岩石。破坏的程度可以通过裂缝和/或愈合的流体包裹体平面的密度来衡量,通常随着距断层岩心的距离呈指数递减,最终达到周围原生岩基质岩石的背景裂缝密度(Chester和Logan,1986年) ; Mitchell和Faulkner,2009; Rockwell等,2009; Rempe等,2013; Morton等,2012)。断层带构造的另一个重要结构要素是次生断层,其次生集中剪切应变大于破坏区的岩石剪切应变,但显着小于断层岩心中观察到的剪切应变。辅助故障可以从故障核心分支或切断它们。另外,它们可以完全存在于破坏区域内,也可以延伸到断层区域之外并延伸到周围的原生岩中。在本文中,我们利用了Teran等人的工作。(2015年)提出了在2010年7.2兆瓦EMC地震中破裂的所有断层的比例为1:500或更佳的系统制图。断裂带的外部界限的识别是通过高度断裂的断层岩石与具有断裂背景强度的结晶基底之间的露头耐候性的强烈对比来辅助的(Teran et al。,2015)。我们用地震断层的切缝阵列揭示了地震动的分布和内部构造。它的一些主要特征包括:(1)破裂区的厚度,(2)陡角的数量,(3)同震滑移在断裂带内分布和分配在断裂带上;(4)存在主要位移的断裂带;(5)不同组的断裂带的几何排列,张开模式和相互连接的程度(Teran等。,2015)。基于这些特征,Teran等人。(2015年)开发了一套参数,可以在Sierra Cucapah沿2010年EMC表面破裂的长度系统地和定量地记录这些参数。他们发现,破裂带厚度的变化幅度大于一个数量级(12-262 m),并且随着破裂带厚度的增加,垂直走向样带中同震陡峭岩的数量也随之增加。因此,这表明随着破裂区域的扩大,同震滑移在越来越复杂的阵列中分布在多个陡坡上,地震滑移分区以断层陡坡阵列的单个成员所适应的幅度和偏移感的变化来表示,并且系统地编制了这两个运动学参数由Fletcher等。(2014)。Teran等。(2015年)根据主要陡坡在任何给定走向垂直断面中的同震滑动总量的相对大小,将库拉赫山脉2010年EMC破裂的所有陡坡分为四类:> 90%,60%–90%,30 %–60%,<30%。我们表明,该分类方案可用于区分滑移的断层段,该断层段集中在一个单一的主要陡坡上,而该陡峭断层可容纳大部分同震滑动,而滑移则分布在多个重叠陡坡上。陡坡阵列各个断层之间的同震滑动划分也是定义同震滑动分布相对于重要结构要素(如主要断层陡坡,构造接触将不同断层块分开以及长寿主岩的边界)的对称性的关键。在本文中,我们以Teran等人的工作为基础。(2015年),他指出断裂带厚度与断裂沿其传播的破坏带厚度密切相关(图3)。这些关系强烈表明,断裂带构造的许多重要方面都与长寿命断裂带的构造有关。这就提出了一个问题,即一种现象是否会控制另一种现象,或者与震源破坏有关的某些其他过程是否可能推动破裂带构造和断裂带构造的发展。主机断层带的结构演化,我们详细绘制了三个案例研究。每个都包含多个代表重要类别的特征的关联,这些重要类别在结构复杂性不断增加的变化范围内定义了不同的级别。寿命长的故障区域的架构复杂性表现为宽度增加,核心数量增加,以及辅助故障的作用。在同震滑动的无穷小增量的断裂带中形成的断裂织物的复杂性表现为宽度增加,断层数量增加,运动学上的划分以及次生断层的作用。这些和其他关键的几何,运动学和岩性特征在下面进行了详细描述,并在表1中进行了概述。Pescadores断层是塞拉库卡(Sierra Cucapah)中最窄,结构最简单的断层之一(图4A,5A和6)。它陡峭地倾斜(约75°),并且沿着塞拉库卡帕山顶的高起伏山脉地形具有相对笔直的轨迹(图4A)。它的断层带宽约20 m,主要由未固结的断层角砾岩和形成于花岗岩中的断层角砾岩组成,断层角砾岩既包括下盘壁又包括上盘壁(图6)。坚硬岩石的更坚硬的露头显着地定义了断层带的外边缘(图6)。断层岩心包含片状粘土泥(<1 m厚),它可能已适应了约4.4 km的大部分累积地质滑动。岩心与古基岩断层的痕迹相吻合,包含了2010年EMC破裂的主要位移峰(图6)。与Pescadores断层有关的EMC破裂沿走向延伸约15 km,通常由单个,突出的主要瘢痕,从中发散出一系列继发性骨折,并呈Riedel状倾斜(图4A和6A)。总同震滑移强烈倾斜,平均右旋滑移约2.5 m,正常滑移约0.9 m(Fletcher等,2014)。一个主要的陡峭与> 90%的同震滑动占该破裂段北部10公里(图4A)。在南部,与拉古纳·萨拉达断层的交叉点附近,该断层从一个主断层分支到另一个主断层(图2),主要陡坡上的相对位移减小到60%–90%,同震滑动分布更分散。尽管Pescadores断层具有高度线性的迹线,但主要的断层在走向上不是连续的,而是分为长度通常小于3 km的段,并由不连续的梯级间距(宽100–150 m)出现)。次生断层陡峭带通常较短(<120 m)。它们通常从主要陡斜斜向张开,并延伸到损坏区域的横向极限,在那里它们弯曲成与主要陡斜度平行。通常,破裂带的厚度不超过20 m,这与断层带的宽度一致。然而,特兰等。(2015年)记录了短的异常宽的部分,厚度高达60m。这些较宽的断层沿走向延伸了数百米,可能与空间上不同的断层核心之间的跨步有关。与佩斯卡多雷斯断层相反,中心的Borrego断层段倾角较小(40°至50°),可容纳两次最大的累积滑移量(6-8 km),断层带宽五倍以上,平均约100 m,局部达到约175 m(图4B和7)。宽破坏带由高裂隙岩组成,并包含由高应变断层岩定义的众多岩心,包括非粘性断层泥,叶状断层泥和粘性碎裂角砾岩(图8)。一般来说,断层芯的宽度从10到100厘米不等。沿Borrego断层这一部分构成断层带的岩石绝大多数来自下盘,该下盘由侵入性复合物组成,从叶闪长闪长岩到无叶花岗岩。这些岩石很容易与悬挂壁区别开来,悬挂壁是由碎屑碎屑沉积层组成的(图2; Barnard,1968; Chora-Salvador,2003)。断层岩心中悬挂壁地层的低介入性可能反映了悬挂壁沉积物与断层接触的持续时间相对较短。因此,在该构造盆地的下方,在该构造盆地中,悬挂壁由构造的结晶基底构成,断层带的宽度可能大于表层记录的宽度。EMC破裂的断层通常分布在整个Borrego断层的核心和破坏区(图7A和8B),同震滑移平均约2.8 m,纵横滑移比为1:1(Fletcher et al。 ,2014)。一些陡坡形成的断层跟随在破坏区底部附近的一个中等倾角的岩心(图7B),并且一般来说,结构上最高的断层股线出现在断层带与沉积盆地填充物之间的上部构造接触之下(图4B)。 )。破裂区的织物由平行吻合图案定义,某些部分包含多达20条单独的丝结(图4B)。与Pescadores断层段相比,梯形阵列极为罕见。几乎每个单个形成疤痕的断层的方向都平行于断层带的上下边界,在同一个样带中,大多数单个陡坡上的同震滑动的耙度与从所有陡坡上整合的总同震滑动的耙向相似。因此,同震滑动的感觉没有在Borrego断层中央部分的众多陡峭地带之间强烈地划分。尽管如此,沿短段仍存在垂直向西错落感的断层,这表明在主断层和陡坡形成断层之间发生了一些滑动转移。(图2)。在Borrego断层的中部,2010年EMC事件的同震滑动分布在多个重叠的陡坡中,在某些样带中包括多达18个单独的陡坡(图4B)。因此,主要的陡坡很难识别,没有观测到陡坡可以容纳总同震滑动的90%以上。此外,仅在四个不相邻的断层中观察到主震,其总同震滑动量为60%-90%,这些断面均未沿着走向延伸超过600 m(图4B)。更常见的是,沿着Borrego断层的地表破裂显示至少有两个重叠的断层陡坡承载着30%–60%的滑移,还有许多其他的陡峭断层承载着0%–30%的滑移(图4B)。一次故障轨迹上滑移的位置可能随一次事件而变化。倒数第二个事件形成的古皮被零星地保存(图9; Hernandez Flores等人,2013; Hernandez Flores,2015),在该处切割最古老的区域相关冲积扇面,根据发达的含泥质碳酸盐岩的地层,这可能是晚更新世的年龄(Mueller和Rockwell,1995; Spelz等,2008)。由于倒数第二个事件以来该扇面的高度受限分布和较长的复发间隔,这些古carp的保存性较差。尽管如此,在2010年EMC事件中所有保留的古果都被重新激活,并且一个地方证实了倒数第二个事件中存在多个重叠的陡壁(图9)。这些结构关系表明在连续事件中表面破裂模式具有一定的可重复性。但是,在一种情况下,在2010年EMC事件中,垂直偏移量约为4 m的古果皮仅以25-45 cm的垂直滑移重新激活。详细的制图和挖沟表明,这种大偏移古树皮是在一次事件中形成的(Hernandez Flores等人,2013; Hernandez Flores,2015),因此,它在上一次事件中至少引起了同震位移的60%–90% 。相比之下,2010年的EMC事件并未沿同一断层产生明显的主位移陡坡.Paso Superior分离层说明了宽而复杂的断层带体系结构的关键特征。断层带厚度为170 m,高应变的裂殖质和断层带分布在各处。通常在沿接触面找到厚度约为2 m的断层带,该接触面将下盘断层的断层岩与上盘盆地的同裂隙地层分开(图10)。接触点附近的泡沫粘土凿可能显示出颜色,从绿色/黑色色调变为棕色/红色色调,分别反映了底壁原型和悬挂壁原型的结合。我们还观察到与弱裂陷的沉积岩层直接接触的源自下盘的黏土凿,基本上没有来自悬壁的凿。正如其他断层所观察到的那样,缓倾断层带的底部由断裂强度的突然变化很好地定义了。破坏带包含许多不同的断层岩石,包括:薄的(<2 cm)离散的滑动面,经化学作用改变的断层角砾岩和强粘性的凯里斯特石(图11)。通过损伤区的毁伤强度是不均匀的,我们通常观察到由可变断裂的原石透镜隔开的许多吻合高应变区。破坏区内的岩石是从下盘面衍生出来的,该下盘面是由岩性异质的变质和火成的原生岩组成。在其他岩石类型中,损坏区域包含流变学较弱的原岩,例如富含页硅酸盐的片岩,片麻岩和大理石。应变通常集中在较弱的富含层状硅酸盐的岩石类型中,以及沿机械强度强烈的岩石类型之间的接触。帕索优势剥离的破坏带通常表现出强烈的岩性分层,可能代表非均质原生岩的构造转位或沿各向异性变质层引导裂缝(图12A)。在大多数帕索优势剥离中,EMC破裂斜滑度为平均1.5 m右倾和1.1 m的正常位移(Fletcher et al。,2014)。但是,EMC断裂的结构显示出系统变化,与主断层的斜面和平坦部分相吻合(图4C,10B和10C)。斜坡部分由次生断层形成,这些次生断层从断层带的结构下部发散,并在结构较高的部分中置换芯和织物。在斜坡部分的最陡峭部分,EMC破裂最窄(厚度通常< 50 m)和陡坡显示出主要是平行的吻合阵列,带有较小的梯形向左走行(图10C)。一般而言,主要的断层陡坡最容易沿着斜坡段识别,它们通常容纳同震滑动的60%–90%(图4C和10B)。相反,EMC破裂在平面部分最宽,其地图视图宽度最大为292 m,厚度为〜170 m(图4C和10C)。从斜坡到平坦的沿着走向的过渡也与破裂带的扩大和主要的陡峭带相吻合,而这种陡峭带占总同震滑动的比例要小得多(图4C,10B和10C)。地震带沿辅助断层的分支,适应了该区域的扩大,从而使帕索苏里特分离带的较浅倾角部分上方的悬壁沉积盆地被切开(图2和图3)。4C和10C)。尽管Paso Superior断层的总宽度与Borrego断层的宽度相似,并且都包含多个高应变核心,但前者的特征是大量的辅助断层,这些断层既贯穿并延伸到了长期断层带的范围之外。这代表着这两个断层内部构造复杂性的显着差异。在保留了包含倒数第二个事件陡坡的晚更新世扇面的地方,我们观察到了多个具有复杂几何形状和分布的古carp。尽管倒数第二个表面破裂的大部分细节由于腐蚀而丢失了,但EMC破裂的复杂分支与其余的古果很好地吻合,并且在所有情况下,所有观测到的古果都在此事件中被重新激活。Paso Superior支队的扁平部分展示了2010 EMC事件中最宽,最复杂的断裂带织物。同震滑移不仅分布在多个陡坡上,而且还以运动学的方式划分为不同方向和滑动方向的陡坡形成断层组。图12A示出了具有不同取向和运动学的陡峭带的空间分离带的示例。两组都具有次平行的走向,并暴露在Paso Superior支队的广阔复杂断层带中。最接近脱离面的一整套陡峭的陡峭岩层显示出浅至中等的倾斜角(50°–37°),仅比断层带的基底接触点(31°–37°)略陡,并且它们主要容纳了正常感同震滑动(Fletcher等,2014)。距离地面迹线最远的那组陡坡是亚垂直的,并适应了以右旋走滑为主的同震滑动(图12A; Fletcher等人,2014)。Paso Superior支队越过2号高速公路穿过的更北的地方,图10B显示,陡坡可以分为至少两组明显不同的方向。一组冲击波次于Paso Superior断层带的悬挂壁接触点,另一组冲击波则宽阔的左阶梯形陡峭带与断裂带的走向高度倾斜(图10A)。第二组的斜击和梯形构造表明,它们可承受整个断裂带上的大部分右旋扳手。运动学分区的另一个例子记录在图12B中。这张照片中的所有斜线都与悬挂的墙壁触点平行,在此位置下垂20°,但是斜线本身陡峭至垂直以下。根据高速公路路面和车道标记的偏移,很明显,最靠近分离线表面痕迹的那组陡峭山峰可以容纳纯常识的倾角滑移,而距离表面痕迹最远的那组陡峭山峰则可以容纳。上面所有的运动学分配示例都表明,尽管断裂带织物表现出极端的结构复杂性,但存在一个潜在的顺序,这暗示着存在机械解释。Wesnousky和Jones(1994)证明,张拉剪切的地壳尺度运动学划分不需要改变应力状态就可以驱动正断层和走滑断层上的滑动,而且他们认为,机械地倾向于在两个断层上进行运动学上的划分。单个故障上的斜滑。2010年的EMC破裂清楚地表明,斜向同震滑动是否被划分为多个子断裂,而这些副断裂的延伸范围远远超出了长寿命断裂带的界限。为了检验运动学划分与a一致的假说在单一应力状态下,我们绘制了沿Paso上脱离层的所有同震滑移分区案例的假设和观测滑移方向(图13A)。假定的应力状态与Fletcher等人进行的应力反演是一致的。(2016年),他们显示了塞拉库卡(Sierra Cucapah)的最大主应力(σ1)是垂直的,最小主应力(σ3)是水平的085°,中间的主应力(σ2)是水平的355°。主应力轴的方向从链接的Bingham统计数据中得出,该统计数据包含构成95%置信区间的237,000个应力模型。假设应力幅值比(ϕ =(σ2-σ3)⁄(σ1-σ3))为0.98,这是95%置信区间内所有应力模型的模态峰值,表明最大和中间主应力在规模上非常接近(Fletcher等人,2016)。假设图13中所示的假设滑移方向与解析剪切应力平行,它是通过将假定的应力状态投影到不同方向的平面上来计算的(Wallace,1951; Bott,1959)。图13A显示了观察到的滑动方向与假设的滑动方向之间的强相关性,表明了因果关系,因此似乎控制在地震发生深度处的断层滑动方向的应力状态也影响控制在地面几百米范围内形成的破裂带织物的复杂表达。图13A中显示的一个重要关系是,无论是否发生罢工,所有垂直下的断层都被预测为走滑。这也意味着无论地形或其他可能会改变主应力轴方向的扰动,垂直下断层在机械上有利于适应斜滑的横向分量。任何低角度断层的几何形状都要求,距断层表面轨迹最远的陡坡比靠近断层表面的陡峭陡坡(图13B)。因此,更陡的倾角断层应该优先滤除偏移的走滑分量,而使分离断层的上倾部分和其任何断层随剩余的倾滑分量分开(图13B)。这就解释了为什么常识性倾角滑移始终被划分为最接近Paso Superior脱离层表面痕迹的同震陡峭地带,而右旋走滑滑移却被距离该轨迹更远的陡峭地带所容纳(图12A和12B)。区域增加了复杂性和宽度,地震表面破裂的表达也是如此(图3A和4),这支持了断层带构造和地震破裂带织物之间的紧密联系,正如Teran等人所观察到的。(2015)。此外,我们记录了在不同类型的断层带中一起出现的一系列相关结构和构造,如图14所示。类型1的断层带宽度通常不超过70 m,并且具有单个井-发育的岩心,通常由厚度约为1 m的片状粘土凿的区域限定。在这个断层类别中,同震滑动强烈集中在单个定义明确的主要陡坡上,该陡坡重新激活了粘土凿芯(图5A和6)。通常,这些主要的位移陡坡可容纳同震滑动总量的90%以上(图4A)。第二类的断层带复杂度显着增加,其特征是重叠的岩心有较宽的区域(50-150 m),但没有一个与简单的狭窄岩层相关的主要岩心发育得很好。断层带的扩大伴随着同震破裂带的扩大和陡峭带数量的增加。在2型断层段中,很难识别出一条主要的陡坡,同震位移最大的陡坡通常在沿走向长度(<600 m)和它们所适应的同震滑移的相对量(30% –60%;图4B)。这样,破裂结构强烈地反映了以多个重叠的岩心和辅助断层为特征的断层带结构。3类破裂带与2类破裂带相似,但它们的特征是大量的辅助断层和强烈的同震滑动划分。这些最宽和最复杂的破裂带与最宽和最复杂的断裂带有关。但是,同震表面破裂一般不限于长寿命断裂带的范围。取而代之的是,大多数由陡坡形成的断层从主断层开始张开,形成新的斜坡,抬高了底盘,或者在紧邻的悬挂壁中以广泛且结构复杂的阵列出现(图14C)。在所有断层类别中观察到的断层均小于同震滑动的30%。塞拉库卡(Sierra Cucapah)断层带结构和相关破裂带结构的多样性为评估其基本控制提供了机会。Yoshioka(1986)在实验室实验中确定了影响切屑生产的多个因素,包括位移,岩石强度,法向应力,滑移前存在的切缝和滑移方式。根据实验室条件下产生的凿子数量的测量结果,岩石强度和正应力是迄今为止五个因素中最重要的(Yoshioka,1986)。在自然断层的例子中,累积位移已显示出会影响断层带构造的某些组成部分,例如断层核心中的切屑的丰度(例如,Scholz,1987; Hull,1988),以及破裂的强度和总宽度损坏区域的评估(Shipton和Cowie,2001; Mitchell和Faulkner,2009)。原生岩的强度也被认为会强烈影响岩心的宽度和数量(例如,Faulkner等,2003)。考虑到法向应力在实验凿岩生产中的重要性,令人惊讶的是,很少有工作要做以检验其对断层的构造表达的影响。在这项研究中,我们展示了如何将断层定向用作法向应力的代理。此外,我们比较了位移,原石和方向受控的法向应力对Sierra Cucapah断层最终构造变化的相对重要性,我们发现与几公里滑移有关的断层累积位移不会明显影响断层带构造。其他因素。研究区中累积滑移最大的断层之一是拉古纳·萨拉达断层。就本研究记录的建筑风格范围而言,Laguna Salada断层与Pescadores断层所代表的1类最相似(表1;图4A,5A和6)。两个断层都具有单个高应变岩心和切碎的石英长石原生质岩。它们也具有相似的方向和右旋法向倾斜方向。但是,拉古纳·萨拉达断层的累积滑移量是后者的两倍多(> 11 km对4.4 km)。帕索上支部是塞拉利昂卡卡帕(Sierra Cucapah)唯一的累积滑移量接近拉古纳·萨达拉(Laguna Salada)断层的断层,但其破坏带拥有多个断层核心,属于频谱另一端的3类断层。结构复杂性。因此,Sierra Cucapah的构造关系表明,累积滑移差异很大的断层具有相似的构造,而具有相似滑移的断层具有根本不同的构造,这表明滑移的幅度对断层带构造的影响最小。凿生产比排水。Sierra Cucapah的两个极端的建筑变化都以具有不同原型的断层为代表。Paso上脱离带的错综复杂的断层带是由一系列富含页硅酸盐的准沉积片麻岩形成的,具有很强的压实性。相比起置换,原生质似乎对断屑生产具有更强的控制力。Sierra Cucapah的两个极端的建筑变化都以具有不同原型的断层为代表。Paso上脱离带的错综复杂的断层带是由一系列富含页硅酸盐的准沉积片麻岩形成的,具有很强的压实性。相比起置换,原生质似乎对断屑生产具有更强的控制力。Sierra Cucapah的两个极端的建筑变化都以具有不同原型的断层为代表。Paso上脱离带的错综复杂的断层带是由一系列富含页硅酸盐的准沉积片麻岩形成的,具有很强的压实性。存在的叶面。相比之下,塞拉库卡山脉的许多简单的狭窄断层带是由花岗岩类深部复杂岩体的石英长石原生岩形成的。实验室实验表明,气刨的产生与基质岩石的强度之间存在反比关系(Yoshioka,1986年),石英长石原生质岩比页硅酸盐原生质岩要强得多,后者通常具有易裂变的机械易裂变性(Faulkner et al。 (2003年)。人们普遍认为,石英长石原生质的催化作用与应变减弱有关,它对应变局部化具有正反馈,并导致具有单个高应变岩心的狭窄断层带的形成(Chester和Logan,1986年)。 ; Chester等,1993; Faulkner等,2003,2008)。相反,页硅酸盐基质岩与多核断层带有关,据认为是由于在分解过程中的应变硬化而形成的(Faulkner等人,2003,2008)。通常假定断层的摩擦强度服从Byerlee(1978)定律,其系数为摩擦系数为0.6-0.85。但是,大多数这些摩擦力测量都是在节理和其他裸露的岩石表面上进行的,并且最近的工作表明,富含粘土的凿子始终较弱,稳态滑动摩擦系数<0.35(Saffer and Marone 2003; Ikari et al。等(2009)。Collettini等。(2009年)表明,即使在页硅酸盐含量相对较低(10%–30%)的岩石中,岩石的摩擦特性也可能接近弱页硅酸盐相的摩擦特性。在断层带中观察到的大多数页硅酸盐相都是次生的,它们来自与剪切有关的晶粒尺寸减小和运动水合反应。但是,含有丰富的原生页硅酸盐的变质岩在陆壳中也很常见。与变质各向异性的复活有关的显着减弱已得到充分记录(如Donath,1961)。如Faulkner等人所提出。(2003年,2008年),富含层状硅酸盐的原岩和由它们衍生的断层岩在摩擦强度上的对比度应非常低。如下所述,各向异性的富含层状硅酸盐的原生岩的催化过程本质上具有应变硬化的特征,这导致了宽多核断层带的发展。断层的方向控制着法向应力与剪切应力的预期比率,对于较低倾角的断层,在这种过渡性背景下应该更高(例如,Fletcher等,2016)。确实,这项研究和Teran等人的伴随论文中最令人惊讶的结果之一。(2015)认为,断层带的体系随着方向的变化而系统地变化,随着结构倾角的减小而变得越来越宽和越来越复杂(图3)。但是,对于我们在此处描述的示例,较高的相对法向应力和较弱的原生岩可能是宽泛的Paso Superior断裂带的原因。因此,为了区分这些影响,我们转向中心的Borrego断层例子。Borrego中央断裂带的累积滑移(6-8 km)介于Pescadores断裂带(〜4 km)和Laguna Salada断裂带(> 11 km)之间。所有这些断层均切割出坚硬的石英长石原生岩,但是前者在结构风格上与后两者几乎没有相似之处(表1)。Borrego中央断裂带的特点是渗透性压裂和破碎角砾岩,分布在整个2型断裂带中。Borrego断层带内的高应变带都没有达到与在1型Pescadores断层带上观察到的单个断层岩心相同的厚度和破碎度。因此,尽管在Borrego中央断裂中应变不那么强,但它在整个3-5倍的断裂带中分布更广。除了截然不同的断层带架构外,这些断层之间唯一的显着差异就是它们的方向。窄的1型断层都陡倾,而宽的2型断层则中等倾(​​表1)。Sierra Cucapah的某些断层的垂向变化伴随着走向变化,为定向对断层带构造的影响提供了进一步的证据。在中等倾角的中央断面以北,Borrego断层变为垂直以下,并且这种方向变化伴随着过渡到狭窄的1型断层带(表1;图5B)。在这里,应变集中在由叶状凿子组成的单个核心上,2010 EMC破裂带的结构由单个主要位移陡峭带主导(图5B; Dorsey等,2017; Teran等,2015)。在另一个示例中,沿着Paso Superior支队的20°浸入平坦部分观察到在2010 EMC事件中开发的最宽,最复杂的断裂带织物。相反,Paso Superior断层的沿走动坡道段(倾角40°–60°)的破裂带厚度减小了105倍(图3、4C,10B和10C)。由于斜坡段在断层带的结构上偏移较高的部分,因此这些断层的滑移程度要远小于它们所扎根的主要Paso Superior分离层(图14C)。因此,沿着Paso Superior脱离带的斜坡和平坦带沿地震的发生分别与从1型断裂带到3型断裂带的过渡相吻合。我们建议可以通过考虑方位角如何确定来解释断裂带构造与方位的相关性。故障经历的牵引力。尽管存在很大差异,但本研究中所有在2010 EMC地震和同震滑动方向上激活的断层,与弗莱彻等人得出的均匀区域应力状态一致。(2016年),如先前针对图13所述。此应力状态的莫尔图表明,在单个断层截面上观察到的法向应力变化接近所施加的差分应力(图14),在10 MPa时约为数十兆帕斯卡。地震成核深度(例如,Fletcher等,2016)。在这种张性构造条件下,断层倾角减小时,取向差和正应力消除的程度都会增加(图14D)。我们在本研究中记录的三类断层在滑移趋势的不同范围内的Mohr图中作图,通常类型1、2和3的断层分别具有高,中和低滑移趋势(图14)。 )。实验室实验(例如,吉冈,1986年)和数值模型(例如Moore和Lockner,2007年)表明,凿孔生产与正应力之间存在很强的正相关关系。这与从库拉山脉(Sierra Cucapah)进行的定性观察相吻合,在那儿,缓倾和多核的宽断层带通常比窄的单核断层带更多的断层。但是,单单切屑生产的预期变化并不能解释单个断层带中多个高应变岩心的复杂分支和发育,与最大压应力成大角度的断层承受高法向应力,并被认为是定向不正确的,因为它们具有最大的抗激活性(图14D)。为了达到临界和滑动,错位的断层需要低摩擦强度(Carpenter等,2011; Lockner等,2011),高孔隙压力(例如Rice,1992; Axen,1992)和/或高压应力(例如Nieto-Samaniego和Alaniz-Alvarez,1995,1997; Nieto-Samaniego,1999; Axen,2004; Fletcher等人)。 ,2016)。Fletcher等。(2016年)表明,即使在附近存在最佳定向断层时,应力也能上升到使未定向断层滑移所需的大小,而这些断层的屈服状态要低得多。但是,无论任何给定的应力条件如何,故障都必须以某种方式达到临界程度才能打滑。影响关键性的所有因素都应在整个故障区域内起作用。因此,如果在断层带中方向不正确的表面能够达到临界状态,则其他具有最佳方向的表面也应严格加载。我们认为,具有较大方向范围的滑移面的摩擦复活是导致滑移分支到多条路径上并导致断层带变宽的重要因素之一。在严重错向的断层带中,同震可能破裂以完全离开断层带,并在相邻的块体中遵循更优化定向的断层,这基本上是我们沿Paso Superior断层观察到的。分离的平坦部分与在紧邻断层带表面痕迹的悬壁中形成的宽陡的陡峭阵列相关。可替代地,斜坡部分由八角控制,八角从其基部附近散发出,并切穿长寿命断层带的构造(图14C)。斜坡和平坦环境中的震颤陡峭要么会长期存在,严重误导了断裂带或将其切开。在其他有地震作用的低角度法向断层实例中,通常会观察到类似的结构关系(例如,Caskey等,1996; Axen等,1999; Hayman等,2003; Numelin等,2007; Hayman等,2003; Axen等,2003; Axen等,2003)。 Spelz等,2008; Fletcher和Spelz,2009)。Fletcher和Spelz(2009)提出,发生滑移从低角度主断层向更优化定向的高角度陡坡形成断层的近地表转移是因为人们认为,在低角度断层上允许震源滑移的因素深度,如近静态孔隙流体压力(Axen,1992)或主应力轴旋转(Yin,1989; Melosh,1990),不太可能在地表附近运行。另外,在表面附近 大角度断层不太可能与整个断层网络中的其他断层联系在一起,当低角度断层上的滑移传播到地面时,这些断层就可以被激活。圣安地列斯断层是板块之间的主要板块边界断层。太平洋和北美洲板块(图1),并已累积了数百公里的滑移量(马修斯,1976年)。它延伸约1300公里,横切众多不同的构造地层,例如方济各会的增生楔形岩,Pelona-Orocopia-Rand片岩的底盘,内华达山脉和半岛山脉的中生岩基以及各种变质岩和深成岩岩体。北美克拉通元古代。下面讨论的圣安德烈亚斯断层的两个对比部分说明了主体岩石岩性,滑动方式,累积的滑移和断层带内部结构上的正应力。美国中部加利福尼亚州圣安德烈亚斯断层的帕克菲尔德断面由一个复杂的断层带组成,该断层带宽约3 km,由重叠的股线组成,包括秃鹰峡谷,圣安德烈亚斯和金山断裂带,每个断裂带都包含多个岩心(Rymer等,2006; Bradbury等,2011)。据认为,本段岩性岩性在控制滑移占主导地位的蠕变模式中起主要作用,高应变断层带含有滑石和其他弱页岩硅酸盐,这些滑硅酸盐是由水热蚀变和与蛇纹石接触的富含蛇纹石的超镁铁质岩的剪切作用而产生的。砂岩,在方济各混杂岩中都丰富(Moore和Rymer,2007,2012)。加利福尼亚州南部圣安德烈亚斯断层的莫哈韦断层主要切割源自元古生界基底和中生代岩基的片岩和石英长石岩(Barrows等,1985)。滑动的方式被认为是粘滑为主,这一部分最近在1857年兆瓦堡7.8级地震中被激活,该地震有多达8 m的右向同震滑动(Sieh,1978; Zielke等。 ,2010)。在加利福尼亚利特罗克附近,圣安德烈亚斯系统由6条主要带组成,包括从东北到西南部:利特罗克断层,圣安德烈亚斯主断层,纳多南部和南部断层,庞克鲍尔断层和索莱达断层以及其他几个未命名的层( Barrows等,1985; Dor等,2006)。断层是次平行的 定义了一个吻合构型,每条链代表了一个复杂的多核断层带中一个不同的核,该断层的宽度从1 km到3 km不等(Barrows等,1985; Dor等,2006)。很难明确地定义每条单线的滑移历史,但是自上新世以来(4.5-4.0 Ma; Barrows等,1985; Powell,1993),每条滑移都已容纳了数十公里的滑移。大多数第四纪滑移集中在圣安德烈亚斯断层的主链上,该断层早于更新世就被认为比其他断层年轻。尽管如此,Sieh(1978)提出,可以通过在重叠系统中将额外的同震滑移划分到相邻的股线上来解释观察到的1857年Fort Tejon堡在加利福尼亚帕尔姆附近的滑脱缺陷。与我们在Sierra Cucapah中的示例一致的一个因素,可以最好地解释San Andreas断层带的千米尺度宽度和复杂性是高法向应力。San Andreas的方向严重不正确,通常与水平最大压缩应力成60°–90°的角度(例如Zoback等,1987; Yang和Hauksson,2013; Fletcher等,2014)。解释圣安德列斯山脉上的滑动力学一直是地球科学中最大的难题之一,主要假设包括:(1)断层带应力作用下的高孔隙压力(Rice 1992; Faulkner et al。,2006),( 2)断层系统中最弱的是圣安德烈亚斯断层的非均质摩擦(Lockner et al。,2011),(3)多个断层之间的均匀摩擦,由于其严重的错位,形成了一个以圣安德烈亚斯为最强成员的互锁网络(Fletcher等人,2016)。不管与滑动力学有关的争议如何,人们都强烈认为圣安德烈亚斯断层具有很低的滑动趋势,因此必须具有很高的施加正应力。(2008年)提出了另外两个具有宽多核断层带的大型走滑断层的详细结构分析。尽管断层带的构造非常相似,但西班牙东南部的Carboneras断层和智利北部的Caleta Coloso断层在原生岩(石墨云母片岩与粒二叠纪的深成岩),累积滑移(40 vs> 5 km)和构造背景(超越与压抑),(Stapel et al。,1996; Faulkner et al。,2008)。但是,这两个参数共有的一个参数是低滑动趋势,因此施加的法向应力较高。Carboneras断层在局部与最大压应力形成一个60°的夹角,在局部甚至高达90°(Stapel等,1996; Faulkner等,2008)。Caleta Coloso断层的方向与现代区域的最大压应力成80°–90°的方向(Faulkner等,2008; Heidbach等,2009)。GoleLarghe断层带从意大利阿尔卑斯山的Tonale线伸展开,是经过广泛研究的复杂断层带的另一个示例。尽管仅容纳了1100 m的总右旋位移,Gole Larghe断层带宽约600 m,除了两个突出的2 m厚的催化层带外,还由许多重叠的假速溶岩和含催化裂隙的断层组成(Di Toro和Pennacchioni,2005; Smith等,2013)。断层带发育于石英石长石富集的原生岩中,形成了Adamello tonalitic岩基的一部分(Di Toro和Pennacchioni,2005; Smith等,2013)。来自断层带的假速溶质产生40Ar / 39Ar年龄为29.8±0.4 Ma,并且它们的存在表明地震发粘滑行为(Di Toro和Pennacchioni,2005年)。该区域的渐新世最大压应力取向为水平以下,趋势为NNW,其几乎垂直于E走向断裂。因此,戈尔拉格河是又一个严重错位的断层,其断层构造很复杂,这又是一个例子。这项简短的调查表明,宽的多核断层并不局限于特定的原岩,一定的累积位移范围或任何特定的滑动方式。恰恰相反,表2显示了宽泛的多核断层带跨越了每个参数的极限值。所有这些全球性事件的共同点是最大主压应力方向错误,这与我们在塞拉库卡山脉的发现一致。剪切的重新定位和重新分布导致形成多个高应变单个断层中的区域需要某种形式的应变强化(例如,Chester和Chester,1998年; Di Toro和Pennacchioni,2005年; Daniel等,2005)。Cowgill等,2004a;Faulkner等,2008)。不管是原石,应变压实和宽多核断层的发展都可能是由于压实和流体诱发的胶结作用而使凿子愈合所致,从而引起了扩容性的增强(Morrow等,1982; Marone等,1990; Marone等, (1998a,1998b; Hirakawa和Ma,2016)。该假设预测,废弃的断层岩心应比活动的断层岩心更紧密地压实和/或矿化,但此类证据尚未得到充分记录。在Sierra Cucapah地区,运动学上的变化不仅限于较复杂的断层带,而且相对简单的单核断层如Laguna Salada断层也与广泛的热液蚀变有关。原生石 气刨强度的小变化可能会对将来的剪切增量的局部化产生很大影响。我们建议,在这种断层中,退化可能固有地以应变硬化为特征。与坚硬的叶状沉积沉积原生质岩相比,石和切屑不仅具有较小的晶粒尺寸,而且这些岩石还可能具有减小的颗粒状结构(例如Heilbronner和Keulen,2006)和页硅酸盐晶粒排列。与原石相比,这将减少由对齐云母限定的滑动面的连续性,并导致断层岩的强化。Collettini等。(2009年)证明,与天然叶状等效岩石相比,具有较小晶粒尺寸且没有优选的晶粒排列的粉末状样品的摩擦强度增加了两倍。催化作用的另一个作用是将速率状态摩擦特性从原石的速度减弱变为气刨的速度增强。我们提出,多芯断层带的预测应变硬化与所有这些示例的一个参数相关联有一个共同点:严重的方向错误和较高的法向压力。与最大压应力形成30°(最佳取向)和80°(严重错位)的角度的两个断层的法向应力差约为所施加压差的72%。与最佳定向的断层相比,定向不正确的断层的屈服强度与法向应力成比例,可能会高出好几倍。因此,我们同意Cowgill等人的观点。(2004b)提出断层相对于主应力的旋转应该导致应变硬化或应变软化。我们提出的取向错位与宽多核断层带的遗传联系并不要求这些断层在整个过程中都经历高法向应力滑动历史。当造山应变通过渐进的普通剪切(由纯剪切分量和简单剪切分量组成的变形路径)累积时,所有平面标记都逐渐朝向主延伸轴旋转,该延伸轴通常以最大角度(如果不垂直)相对于区域最大值取向压应力(Fossen和Tikoff,1993; Tikoff和Wojtal,1999)。因此,所有故障,无论其初始方向如何,应旋转以相对于区域应力逐渐增大的取向错误角度。同样,由于构造载荷的变化,主应力轴也可以相对于地壳中的静止特征旋转。这种与盆地和范围扩展有关的机制可能是相对于圣安德烈亚斯断层的主要法向应力的高角度的原因。我们建议,只要在高法向应力下发生了一些累积的滑移,故障就可能发展为宽多核架构。Gole Larghe断裂带仅具有1100 m的总右旋位移(Di Toro和Pennacchioni,2005),是产生较宽的复杂断裂带所需的累计滑动下限的一个例子。塞拉库卡山脉的田间关系表明,与单个地震破裂的极小应变相关的断层类型与长寿命断层带的内部结构之间具有很强的相关性。我们认识到三种不同类型的故障。1型断层具有狭窄的损坏区(宽度<100 m)和单个高应变芯。等震滑动包含在断层带内,高度集中(60%–90%)到与断层核心相吻合的单一主陡坡上。2型断层的损坏区域很宽(几百米宽),多个高应变铁心重叠。同震滑动广泛分布在完全存在于断层带内的多条(5-20​​)重叠的陡坡上。第3类故障也具有多个铁心的广泛损坏区域,此外,它们受到次生断层的强烈影响,其中一些断层切割了先前形成的岩心,并延伸超过了破坏区的界限几公里。同震滑移广泛分布在多个陡坡上,并转移到次生断层,这些次生断层沿走向与主断层分叉并重新合并。与其他两个类别相比,斜向同震滑动的运动学划分在第三类断层中发展最为强烈。即使在最大断裂复杂度的情况下,最近地震的所有古果树也被最近一次地震形成的陡峭断层所重新激活,这表明连续地震中断裂结构和运动学的可重复性很高。我们的工作支持广泛接受的假说,即应变软化导致滑移逐渐定位,从而形成具有单个高应变核心的简单窄断层带,而应变硬化导致滑移的重新分布以及宽复杂多核的发展。断层带。粒度减小和蚀变反应会增加页硅酸盐的浓度,这会促使渐进性减弱,从而将应变局限在断层的核心。但是,如果基质岩石中已经富含页硅酸盐,例如在准沉积片岩和片麻岩中,则碎裂弱化的程度将大大降低。在这些情况下,加泰罗尼亚河本身可能会通过破坏先前存在的叶脉并降低岩石中滑动面的连续性而导致加固。另外,当原生岩-岩心的强度对比较低时,与崩落石和凿子的速度增强特性相关的微小变化可能足以将应变重新定位到以速度减弱为特征的断层带变形较小的区域。并且在全世界范围内都显示出广泛的多核结构(表1),但是在花岗岩岩石中形成,考虑到原石和岩心强度的巨大反差,这有点违反直觉。但是,本研究中提出的所有此类示例均对应于相对于最大主法向应力严重错误定向的断层。因此,不管它们所含的凿子和黑洞的物理性质如何,这些断层的核心必须通过施加较大的法向应力来大大加强。理所当然地认为磨损和损坏应随着跨断层的累积滑移量的增加而增加,但是有几个因素可以有效地抑制直线形的存在。前向关系。随着滑动变形,断屑产生的速率显着降低,这是由于滑移事件产生的断裂能进一步减小了已存在的断屑的晶粒尺寸,而没有明显增加其体积(Yoshioka,1986)。因此,经历渐进弱化的断层比经历渐进增强的断层产生的断层和磨损更少。这表明在评估累积滑移在断层带构造中的作用时,必须考虑所施加的法向应力和原生岩芯强度差异的取向控制变化。这项工作由墨西哥墨西哥城Consejo Nacional de Ciencia yTecnología资助(CB-2014-239818)和美国加利福尼亚州洛杉矶的南加州地震中心(SCEC)(EAR-1033462和美国地质调查局G12AC20038,SCEC文件10004)。维多利亚·朗根海姆(Victoria Langenheim),德文·麦克菲利普斯(Deven McPhillips),海梅·德拉诺(Jaime Delano),迈克尔·泰勒(Michael Taylor)和安茵(An Yin)的评论极大地改善了这篇论文。我们感谢Jose Mojarro和Luis Gradilla提供的技术支持。我们还要感谢Jaime Delano和其他审阅者的建议和评论,这些建议和评论极大地改善了本文。这项工作由墨西哥墨西哥城的Consejo Nacional de Ciencia yTecnología(CB-2014-239818)和美国加利福尼亚州的洛杉矶南加州地震中心(SCEC)(EAR-1033462和美国地质调查局G12AC20038,SCEC)资助纸10004)。维多利亚·朗根海姆(Victoria Langenheim),德文·麦克菲利普斯(Deven McPhillips),海梅·德拉诺(Jaime Delano),迈克尔·泰勒(Michael Taylor)和安茵(An Yin)的评论极大地改善了这篇论文。我们感谢Jose Mojarro和Luis Gradilla提供的技术支持。我们还要感谢Jaime Delano和其他审阅者的建议和评论,这些建议和评论极大地改善了本文。这项工作由墨西哥墨西哥城Consejo Nacional de Ciencia yTecnología(CB-2014-239818)和美国加利福尼亚州洛杉矶的南加州地震中心(SCEC)(EAR-1033462和美国地质调查局G12AC20038,SCEC)资助纸10004)。维多利亚·朗根海姆(Victoria Langenheim),德文·麦克菲利普斯(Deven McPhillips),海梅·德拉诺(Jaime Delano),迈克尔·泰勒(Michael Taylor)和安茵(An Yin)的评论极大地改善了这篇论文。我们感谢Jose Mojarro和Luis Gradilla提供的技术支持。我们还要感谢Jaime Delano和其他审阅者的建议和评论,这些建议和评论极大地改善了本文。维多利亚·朗根海姆(Victoria Langenheim),德文·麦克菲利普斯(Deven McPhillips),海梅·德拉诺(Jaime Delano),迈克尔·泰勒(Michael Taylor)和安茵(An Yin)的评论极大地改善了这篇论文。我们感谢Jose Mojarro和Luis Gradilla提供的技术支持。我们还要感谢Jaime Delano和其他审阅者的建议和评论,这些建议和评论极大地改善了本文。维多利亚·朗根海姆(Victoria Langenheim),德文·麦克菲利普斯(Deven McPhillips),海梅·德拉诺(Jaime Delano),迈克尔·泰勒(Michael Taylor)和安茵(An Yin)的评论极大地改善了这篇论文。我们感谢Jose Mojarro和Luis Gradilla提供的技术支持。我们还要感谢Jaime Delano和其他审阅者的建议和评论,这些建议和评论极大地改善了本文。
更新日期:2020-09-01
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