When humans make biased or suboptimal choices, they are often attributed to complex cognitive processes that are viewed as being uniquely human. Alternatively, several phenomena, such as suboptimal gambling behavior and cognitive dissonance (justification of effort) may be explained more simply as examples of the contrast between what is expected and what occurs as well as Wagner's Standard Operating Procedure model based on reward prediction error. For example, when pigeons are attracted to choices involving a suboptimal, low probability of a high payoff, as in unskilled gambling behavior, it may be attributed to reward prediction error or the contrast between the low probability of reward expected and the sometimes high probability of reward obtained (when one wins). Similarly, justification of effort, the tendency to attribute greater value to rewards that are difficult to obtain, is typically explained in terms of the tendency to inflate the value of a reward to justify the effort required to obtain it. When pigeons prefer outcomes that require more effort to obtain, however, it is more likely to be explained in terms of contrast between the effort and the reward that follows. We readily attribute the behavior of animals to contrast-like effects or reward prediction error, however, when similar behavior occurs in humans, we also should be prepared to explain it in terms of simpler learning mechanisms. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).

中文翻译：

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试验内对比或Wagner的SOP模型：它们是否都可以解释两种假定的复杂认知现象？

当人们做出有偏见或次优的选择时，它们通常归因于复杂的认知过程，这些过程被认为是独特的人类。或者，可以更简单地解释几种现象，例如不理想的赌博行为和认知失调（努力的合理性），以作为预期和发生的情况之间的对比示例，以及基于奖励预测误差的瓦格纳标准操作程序模型。例如，当鸽子被吸引到涉及高收益的次优，低概率的选择时，例如在非熟练的赌博行为中，这可能归因于奖励预测误差或预期的低奖励概率与有时的高奖励概率之间的对比。获得的奖励（当获胜时）。同样，努力的理由，通常用增加奖励价值以证明获得其努力所需的正当性的趋势来解释将较大价值归因于难以获得的奖励的趋势。但是，当鸽子喜欢需要付出更多努力才能获得的结果时，更有可能用努力和随后的回报之间的对比来解释。我们很容易将动物的行为归因于类似对比的效果或奖励预测错误，但是，当人类发生相似的行为时，我们也应该准备用更简单的学习机制来解释它。（PsycInfo数据库记录（c）2020 APA，保留所有权利）。但是，当鸽子喜欢需要付出更多努力才能获得的结果时，更有可能用努力和随后的回报之间的对比来解释。我们很容易将动物的行为归因于类似对比的效果或奖励预测错误，但是，当人类发生相似的行为时，我们也应该准备用更简单的学习机制来解释它。（PsycInfo数据库记录（c）2020 APA，保留所有权利）。但是，当鸽子喜欢需要付出更多努力才能获得的结果时，更有可能用努力和随后的回报之间的对比来解释。我们很容易将动物的行为归因于类似对比的效果或奖励预测错误，但是，当人类发生相似的行为时，我们也应该准备用更简单的学习机制来解释它。（PsycInfo数据库记录（c）2020 APA，保留所有权利）。