While vaccines have been the major medical intervention in human history that fundamentally reshaped our life‐expectancy, the global COVID‐19 pandemic reinforced public awareness about the critical need for further advancement of vaccine development. Multiple groups have published on improved and directed efforts to develop vaccines—efforts that are informed by the most up‐to‐date understanding of the immune system and its variability, as well as by advances in biotechnology. This century has seen a dramatic increase in targeted vaccines that were developed using these modern approaches to combat both infectious and non‐infectious diseases.

Multiple decades of studies have spanned a wide spectrum: On one end, the focus is on the fundamental aspects of the adaptive immune system, which is responsible for initiation, progression, and persistence of humoral immune responses to foreign antigens (Ags); and the other end focuses on the development of vaccines to elicit desirable antibody (Ab) responses to provide protection against multiple pathogens. These immune responses consist of a carefully choreographed sequence of events occurring in both time and space. The space, or anatomy, of the response is an essential element as it makes possible the myriad cellular and molecular interactions that must occur. The immune system has its own organs, tissues, as well as specialized anatomical niches within these organs and tissues that facilitate the growth, maturation, and development of immune cells. These spaces provide controlled microenvironments in which immune cells interact in a coordinated fashion, enabling lymphocyte activation, differentiation, and acquisition of effector function, as well as the maintenance of memory cell populations (Figure 1). One of those critical interactions is the communication that takes place between B cells and specialized CD4+ T lymphocytes, T follicular helper Tfh cells. Cognate help provided by Tfh cells is an essential element of robust humoral immunity. In 2000, these cells were first described in human tonsils1, 2 and were subsequently found in other specialized locations within lymphoid tissues. Ensuring optimal activation of Tfh cell responses is now being considered as a promising approach toward developing improved vaccines. Tfh cells are just one of many types of specialized T helper lymphocytes that support the development of protective immunity. Within the B cell compartment, we also find specialized subsets including the following: plasmablasts, long‐ and short‐lived plasma cells, and memory cells. Each one has their own important role to play in protection against foreign pathogens.

This special issue of Immunological Reviews, “B and Th cell response to Ag in vivo: implications for vaccine development and diseases, ” involves a broad and ambitious topic aimed at bringing together current knowledge in B and Th cell immune responses (including their interactions) that are essential for development of long‐lived humoral protection. The issue also includes up‐to‐date information about multiple factors that are critical for targeted vaccine development. The special issue will touch upon the challenges in generating broadly neutralizing immune responses against rapidly mutating viruses (eg, influenza) and dysregulation of B/Th cell responses associated with universal diseases such as autoimmune disease and cancer. It will also discuss how advancement in the vaccine field broadens its focus from conventional pathogens to various intervention therapies. The reviews included in this issue will describe multiple factors that affect B and Th cell recruitment in response to Ag, B cell competition in germinal centers (GCs), and differentiation into memory cells and Ab‐secreting long‐lived plasma cells, persistence of the Ab‐secreting cells, control of B cell responses by Tregs, and molecular dysregulations associated with autoimmunity and B cell cancers. From the vaccine‐focused perspective, the reviews will discuss the modulation of B and Th cell immune response by virus‐like particles (VLPs) and adjuvants, as well as the immune‐response variability that occurs due to aging and various genetic factors. Speaking of genetic factors, years of research have clearly demonstrated that allelic variation in the human leukocyte antigen (HLA) locus has significant effects on both the Ab response and the development of T helper activity in response to both infection and vaccination. In recognition of the current SARS‐CoV‐2 pandemic that has captured the attention of the global research community, the volume includes an article describing the veritable flurry of studies that have been conducted over a few short months to understand the role of genetic variation, including variation in the HLA region on SARS‐COV‐2 infection and COVID‐19 clinical outcomes. That article also touches on the work currently being done to examine the effect of viral genetic variation on infection and disease severity.

The generation of broadly neutralizing Ab responses against pathogens requires recruitment of multiple Ag‐specific B cell clones into T‐dependent immune response that can give rise to GC‐experienced class‐switched memory B cells and long‐lived plasma cells (LLPCs). However, recruitment of individual B cell clones into GCs depends on multiple factors, including Ag valency, biophysical properties and amount, cellular/molecular context, and duration of Ag acquisition by B cell and the timing of T cell help. The review by Turner et al3 attempts to bring these factors together in the context of spatiotemporal microanatomy of B‐cell activation to suggest that Ag distribution and the timing of the initial B‐Th cell contacts may influence clonal repertoire of B cells recruited into primary immune response. The article also highlights the fact that B cells may go through more than one round of Ag‐dependent activation in vivo and raises a few still unresolved questions in the field concerning B cell activation vs tolerance fate in vivo.

Abbott et al4 review current knowledge regarding the other critical factors contributing to the initiation and progression of B cell response to complex Ags. These factors include B cell precursor frequency, the affinity of BCR: Ag binding, and Ag avidity, which can all affect the nature and magnitude of the GC and Ab response. Understanding how these factors affect the B cell response may prove useful in our ongoing search for an effective HIV vaccine, a universal influenza vaccine, and perhaps vaccines targeting SARS‐CoV‐2 and other coronaviruses.

The review by Hua et al5 discusses several features that are critical for the initiation and progression of T‐dependent and T‐independent B cell responses to foreign Ags, with particular emphasis on Qβ‐VLPs (bacterial phage Qβ virus‐like particles with encapsulated single‐stranded RNA). The review examines the dendritic cell (DCs)‐centered dogma of the initial Th cell activation and infers that, in some cases, Ag‐specific B cells may play a more important or even more dominant role than DCs as Ag‐presenting cells for Th cells (e.g., following immunization with viral‐like particles [Qβ‐VLPs] or with inactivated viruses, as well as in the course of progressive autoimmune diseases). The review also addresses the role of TLR‐signaling in T‐independent proliferation of B cells, magnitude and duration of GC responses, and in autoimmunity.

The role of cognate B‐T cell interactions during initiation and progression of T‐dependent B cell responses is rendered critical. The review by Biram et al6 outlines what is known about the temporal dynamics of B‐Th cell encounters and their molecular communication, follicular helper T cells Tfh that are critical for GCs, and the principles underlying GC B cells affinity maturation and selection. The review touches on the currently evolving understanding of B cell responses at mucosal surfaces and in peyer's patches (PP), including T‐independent IgA responses to commensal bacteria and rotaviruses, extensive B cell proliferation in subepithelial dome of PP, and atypical non‐cognate T cell help that supports GCs B cells in PP in parallel to the conventional cognate Tfh‐cell driven selection.

While Tfh cell help to GC B cells, which undergo rapid somatic hypermutation, is critical for selection of B cell clones with high affinity to Ag, this process promotes lymphomagenesis and has been known to lead to cancer. The review by Minz et al7 takes a pointed view regarding the molecular mechanisms driving Tfh and GC B cell communication in the off‐target support of various GC‐originated malignancies, such as follicular lymphomas, GC B cell‐diffuse large B cell lymphomas, and Burkitt lymphomas. The review provides analysis of the molecular players and signaling pathways responsible for Tfh cells‐mediated support of GC B cells, discusses them in the context of malignancy‐associated mutations and suggests potential therapeutic approaches to disable Tfh‐GC B cells communication to avert lymphomagenesis.

The major target of vaccination is development of memory B cells (Bmem), which should be reactivated upon infection if preexisting Ab titers are insufficient or suboptimal for pathogen recognition and removal. The heterogeneous populations of Bmem cells in terms of their origin, trafficking, and fate are elucidated in the review by Dhenni et al.8 It also provides a comprehensive overview of memory B cell subsets present at various anatomical locations and discusses the microanatomy of Ag and T cell help acquisition by Bmem cells that is very distinct from naïve B cells. Finally, the review describes atypical and autoreactive Bmem cells and their surfacing role in multiple autoimmune diseases.

Another major focus in the vaccine field is generation of LLPCs; however, while immunizations usually trigger plasma cell (PC) response, variable success is noted in terms of PC persistence. The review by Robinson et al9 provides an overview of the up‐to‐date knowledge about the intrinsic and extrinsic determinants of PC survival and persistence in the bone marrow (BM). The review covers the origins of PC development, PC homing and adhesion in the BM, and their metabolic regulation. In addition, it describes various cells, molecules, and processes that support survival of PCs in the BM niches in a master transcription regulator Mcl1‐dependent fashion. Finally, the review discusses various models of PC turnover in the BM and suggests an important role of inflammation for this process.

While vaccine responses should lead to development of memory B cells and LLPCs, triggering B cell responses may also lead to undesirable effects, such as elevated production of IgE class‐switched or autoreactive Abs, which may contribute to allergic reactions and autoimmunity. Tregs, particularly their subset called follicular regulatory T cells (Tfr), have been implicated as the cells controlling these processes. The review by Wing et. al10 provides a detailed overview of Tregs’ functions and heterogeneity and of the Treg/ Tfr ‐mediated control of B cells and Ab responses. It also describes transcriptional regulation of Tfr development, Tfr localization, specificity, their role in affinity maturation and viral infections, and discusses perspectives that target Tfrs in therapies to improve immune responses to vaccines and to avert allergies.

The next article in this issue focuses on efforts to create more effective (and broadly reactive) vaccine responses against influenza. Fukuyama et al11 argue that Abs targeting conserved epitopes in the stem region of the hemagglutinin protein offer broad protection against antigenically divergent influenza strains. Mechanistic‐based vaccination strategies that lead to the formation of memory B cell populations producing broadly reactive Abs may also be applicable to other viral pathogens.

The article by Frasca et al12 shifts our attention to the effect of age on immune response to vaccination and infection. They dissect the molecular and cellular mechanisms contributing to immunosenescence, with particular attention paid to defective interactions between T helper cells and B cells and alterations in the microenvironment. One important contributor to immunosenescence is believed to be the accumulation of immune cells with a senescence‐associated phenotype. The impact of these cells on immune function is highlighted. Age‐related changes in metabolic activity are also enumerated, and their impact on immune dysregulation is also discussed.

Mohsen et al13 provide a thought‐provoking review regarding the design of vaccine Ags, the delivery of those Ags, and the dynamics of the response. They explore these concepts in the context of highly repetitive virus‐like particle Ags, where size and other characteristics can be manipulated to fine‐tune Ag delivery to lymphoid tissues, thereby shaping desired immune responses.

The next article, by Schijns et al,14 also deals with the modulation of immune function, but approaches the issue from two different standpoints: adjuvant usage and therapeutic vaccination. The authors contend that therapeutic vaccination has untapped potential due to the large number of chronic health conditions with immune components. The article begins with a discussion of the indications for therapeutic vaccination and segues into a review of the adjuvants and innate immune responses that may be harnessed for optimal vaccine efficacy. There is a careful consideration of elements necessary for the induction of not only humoral immunity, but also cell‐mediated responses, which are all too often ignored or minimized during discussions of vaccine efficacy.

Knight et.al15 provide a detailed overview of the difficulties facing the immune response to influenza, covering: immunodominance, viral mutation of both the hemagglutinin and neuraminidase proteins to avoid immune recognition, and immunologic imprinting and original antigenic sin. The authors describe the effects these phenomena have on B cell responses to infection and vaccination, the mechanisms behind those effects, and how to use this knowledge to develop vaccines eliciting protective immune responses with broad or universal influenza strain reactivity.

The final article in this issue focuses on genetic variation and immune response to infection and vaccination. This is a topic that has been extensively reviewed in the scientific literature; because of this, Ovsyannikova et al16 highlighted the studies focusing on human coronaviruses, including the four seasonal coronaviruses, SARS‐CoV, MERS‐CoV, and SARS‐CoV‐2. In the few months since the COVID‐19 pandemic began, there has been an explosion of published SARS‐CoV‐2‐specific literature on PubMed and preprint servers, with well over 1000 manuscripts becoming available every week. It will not surprise our readers to see that this has included a number of reports characterizing viral genetic variation and assessing the impact of both viral and host genetics on infection and disease severity. We fully expect that these intensified research activities will continue well into the future and will provide a wealth of information regarding this novel pathogen. This work will also foster an increased understanding of the dynamic interactions of the immune system in the development of protective immunity.

Collectively, these articles will provide the reader with insights into T and B cell interactions during the development of immune responses to infection and vaccination. This issue also highlights the progress that has been made in understanding the intricate details of immune response and how those insights are currently being used to inform vaccine development. Each article outlines major areas currently under investigation that are poised to deliver the next set of advances in our understanding of how immunity develops.

虽然疫苗是人类历史上主要的医疗干预措施，从根本上重塑了我们的预期寿命，但全球 COVID-19 大流行增强了公众对进一步推进疫苗开发的迫切需要的认识。多个团体已经发表了关于改进和定向开发疫苗的努力的文章，这些努力是基于对免疫系统及其变异性的最新了解以及生物技术的进步而做出的。本世纪，使用这些现代方法开发的用于对抗传染性和非传染性疾病的靶向疫苗急剧增加。

数十年的研究涵盖了广泛的领域：一方面，重点是适应性免疫系统的基本方面，它负责对外来抗原（Ag）的体液免疫反应的启动、进展和持续；另一端侧重于疫苗的开发，以引发所需的抗体 (Ab) 反应，从而提供针对多种病原体的保护。这些免疫反应由在时间和空间上发生的精心设计的事件序列组成。反应的空间或解剖结构是一个重要因素，因为它使得必须发生的无数细胞和分子相互作用成为可能。免疫系统有自己的器官、组织，以及这些器官和组织内专门的解剖学生态位，这些生态位促进免疫细胞的生长、成熟和发育。这些空间提供了受控的微环境，免疫细胞在其中以协调的方式相互作用，从而实现淋巴细胞的激活、分化和效应功能的获得，以及记忆细胞群的维持（图1）。这些关键的相互作用之一是 B 细胞和专门的 CD4+ T 淋巴细胞（即滤泡辅助 Tfh 细胞）之间发生的通讯。 Tfh 细胞提供的同源帮助是强大体液免疫的重要组成部分。 2000 年，这些细胞首次在人类扁桃体1、2中被描述，随后在淋巴组织内的其他特殊位置被发现。确保 Tfh 细胞反应的最佳激活现在被认为是开发改进疫苗的一种有前途的方法。 Tfh 细胞只是支持保护性免疫发展的多种特殊 T 辅助淋巴细胞之一。 在 B 细胞区室中，我们还发现了特殊的亚群，包括以下细胞：浆母细胞、长寿命和短寿命浆细胞以及记忆细胞。每一种都在抵御外来病原体方面发挥着自己的重要作用。

本期《免疫学评论》特刊“体内B 细胞和 Th 细胞对 Ag 的反应：对疫苗开发和疾病的影响”涉及一个广泛而雄心勃勃的主题，旨在汇集 B 细胞和 Th 细胞免疫反应（包括它们的相互作用）的当前知识这对于长期体液保护的发展至关重要。本期还包括有关对靶向疫苗开发至关重要的多个因素的最新信息。该特刊将涉及针对快速突变病毒（例如流感）产生广泛中和免疫反应以及与自身免疫性疾病和癌症等普遍疾病相关的 B/Th 细胞反应失调的挑战。它还将讨论疫苗领域的进步如何将其重点从传统病原体扩大到各种干预疗法。本期的综述将描述影响 B 细胞和 Th 细胞响应 Ag 招募的多种因素、生发中心 (GC) 中 B 细胞的竞争、分化为记忆细胞和分泌 Ab 的长寿命浆细胞、 Ab 分泌细胞、Treg 对 B 细胞反应的控制以及与自身免疫和 B 细胞癌症相关的分子失调。从以疫苗为中心的角度来看，这些评论将讨论病毒样颗粒 (VLP) 和佐剂对 B 细胞和 Th 细胞免疫反应的调节，以及由于衰老和各种遗传因素而发生的免疫反应变异性。 说到遗传因素，多年的研究已经清楚地表明，人类白细胞抗原 (HLA) 基因座的等位基因变异对抗体反应以及响应感染和疫苗接种的 T 辅助活性的发展具有显着影响。鉴于当前 SARS-CoV-2 大流行引起了全球研究界的关注，该卷中包含一篇文章，描述了在短短几个月内为了解遗传变异的作用而进行的一系列名副其实的研究，包括 SARS-COV-2 感染和 COVID-19 临床结果的 HLA 区域变化。该文章还涉及目前正在进行的研究病毒遗传变异对感染和疾病严重程度影响的工作。

针对病原体的广泛中和抗体反应的产生需要将多个 Ag 特异性 B 细胞克隆招募到 T 依赖性免疫反应中，从而产生经历 GC 的类别转换记忆 B 细胞和长寿命浆细胞 (LLPC)。然而，将单个 B 细胞克隆招募到 GC 中取决于多种因素，包括 Ag 价、生物物理特性和数量、细胞/分子环境、B 细胞获取 Ag 的持续时间以及 T 细胞帮助的时间。 Turner 等人的综述3试图在 B 细胞激活的时空微观解剖学背景下将这些因素结合在一起，表明 Ag 分布和初始 B-Th 细胞接触的时间可能会影响招募到初级中的 B 细胞的克隆库。免疫反应。该文章还强调了 B 细胞在体内可能经历不止一轮 Ag 依赖性激活的事实，并提出了有关 B 细胞体内激活与耐受命运的领域中一些尚未解决的问题。

Abbott 等人4回顾了有关导致 B 细胞对复杂 Ag 反应的启动和进展的其他关键因素的当前知识。这些因素包括 B 细胞前体频率、BCR 亲和力：Ag 结合以及 Ag 亲和力，这些因素都会影响 GC 和 Ab 反应的性质和幅度。了解这些因素如何影响 B 细胞反应可能有助于我们不断寻找有效的 HIV 疫苗、通用流感疫苗，或许还有针对 SARS-CoV-2 和其他冠状病毒的疫苗。

Hua 等人的综述5讨论了对于 T 依赖性和 T 独立性 B 细胞对外来 Ag 反应的启动和进展至关重要的几个特征，特别强调 Qβ-VLP（带有封装的细菌噬菌体 Qβ 病毒样颗粒）单链RNA）。该综述检查了初始 Th 细胞激活的以树突状细胞 (DC) 为中心的法则，并推断在某些情况下，Ag 特异性 B 细胞可能比 DC 作为 Th 细胞的 Ag 呈递细胞发挥更重要甚至更主导的作用。细胞（例如，在使用病毒样颗粒 [Qβ-VLP] 或灭活病毒进行免疫接种后，以及在进行性自身免疫性疾病的过程中）。该综述还探讨了 TLR 信号传导在 B 细胞 T 依赖性增殖、GC 反应的强度和持续时间以及自身免疫中的作用。

在 T 依赖性 B 细胞反应的启动和进展过程中，同源 B-T 细胞相互作用的作用变得至关重要。 Biram 等人的综述6概述了 B-Th 细胞相遇的时间动态及其分子通讯、对 GC 至关重要的滤泡辅助 T 细胞 Tfh，以及 GC B 细胞亲和力成熟和选择的基本原理。该综述涉及目前对粘膜表面和派伊尔淋巴结 (PP) 中 B 细胞反应的不断发展的理解，包括对共生细菌和轮状病毒的 T 独立 IgA 反应、PP 上皮下穹窿中的广泛 B 细胞增殖以及非典型非同源 B 细胞增殖。 T 细胞帮助支持 PP 中的 GC B 细胞，与传统的同源 Tfh 细胞驱动选择并行。

虽然 Tfh 细胞有助于 GC B 细胞进行快速体细胞超突变，对于选择与 Ag 具有高亲和力的 B 细胞克隆至关重要，但这一过程会促进淋巴瘤发生，并已知会导致癌症。 Minz 等人的综述7对驱动 Tfh 和 GC B 细胞通讯在各种 GC 起源的恶性肿瘤的脱靶支持中的分子机制提出了尖锐的观点，例如滤泡性淋巴瘤、GC B 细胞弥漫性大 B 细胞淋巴瘤、和伯基特淋巴瘤。该综述对负责 Tfh 细胞介导的 GC B 细胞支持的分子参与者和信号通路进行了分析，在恶性肿瘤相关突变的背景下讨论了它们，并提出了禁用 Tfh-GC B 细胞通讯以避免淋巴瘤发生的潜在治疗方法。

疫苗接种的主要目标是记忆 B 细胞 (Bmem) 的发育，如果先前存在的抗体滴度不足以或未达到病原体识别和清除的最佳水平，则应在感染后重新激活记忆 B 细胞。 Dhenni 等人的综述阐明了 Bmem 细胞在起源、运输和命运方面的异质群体。 8它还全面概述了存在于不同解剖位置的记忆 B 细胞亚群，并讨论了 Ag 和 T 细胞的微观解剖结构，帮助 Bmem 细胞获取与初始 B 细胞截然不同的信息。最后，该综述描述了非典型和自身反应性 Bmem 细胞及其在多种自身免疫性疾病中的表面作用。

疫苗领域的另一个主要焦点是 LLPC 的产生；然而，虽然免疫接种通常会引发浆细胞 (PC) 反应，但就 PC 持久性而言，成功率参差不齐。 Robinson 等人的综述9概述了有关 PC 存活和骨髓 (BM) 持久性的内在和外在决定因素的最新知识。该综述涵盖了 PC 发育的起源、PC 归巢和 BM 粘附及其代谢调节。此外，它还描述了以主转录调节因子 Mcl1 依赖的方式支持 BM 生态位中 PC 生存的各种细胞、分子和过程。最后，该综述讨论了 BM 中 PC 更新的各种模型，并提出了炎症在此过程中的重要作用。

虽然疫苗反应应导致记忆 B 细胞和 LLPC 的发育，但触发 B 细胞反应也可能导致不良影响，例如 IgE 类别转换或自身反应性抗体的产生增加，这可能导致过敏反应和自身免疫。 Tregs，特别是它们称为滤泡调节性 T 细胞 (Tfr) 的子集，被认为是控制这些过程的细胞。 Wing 等人的评论。 al 10详细概述了 Tregs 的功能和异质性以及 Treg/Tfr 介导的 B 细胞和 Ab 反应的控制。它还描述了 Tfr 发育的转录调控、Tfr 定位、特异性、它们在亲和力成熟和病毒感染中的作用，并讨论了在治疗中针对 Tfr 的观点，以改善对疫苗的免疫反应和避免过敏。

本期的下一篇文章重点关注针对流感创建更有效（且具有广泛反应性）疫苗反应的努力。 Fukuyama 等人11认为，针对血凝素蛋白茎区保守表位的抗体可针对抗原不同的流感病毒株提供广泛的保护。基于机制的疫苗接种策略可导致记忆 B 细胞群形成，产生广泛反应性抗体，也可能适用于其他病毒病原体。

Frasca 等人的文章12将我们的注意力转移到年龄对疫苗接种和感染的免疫反应的影响。他们剖析了导致免疫衰老的分子和细胞机制，特别关注 T 辅助细胞和 B 细胞之间的缺陷相互作用以及微环境的改变。据信，免疫衰老的一个重要因素是具有衰老相关表型的免疫细胞的积累。这些细胞对免疫功能的影响被强调。还列举了与年龄相关的代谢活动变化，并讨论了它们对免疫失调的影响。

Mohsen 等人13对疫苗抗原的设计、这些抗原的递送以及反应的动态进行了发人深省的综述。他们在高度重复的病毒样颗粒 Ag 的背景下探索这些概念，其中可以操纵大小和其他特征来微调 Ag 向淋巴组织的输送，从而形成所需的免疫反应。

Schijns 等人的下一篇文章14也涉及免疫功能的调节，但从两个不同的角度处理该问题：佐剂的使用和治疗性疫苗接种。作者认为，由于大量慢性健康状况与免疫成分有关，治疗性疫苗接种具有尚未开发的潜力。本文首先讨论了治疗性疫苗接种的适应症，然后回顾了可用于实现最佳疫苗功效的佐剂和先天免疫反应。不仅要仔细考虑诱导体液免疫所需的要素，还要仔细考虑诱导细胞介导的反应所需的要素，而这些要素在讨论疫苗功效时常常被忽视或最小化。

Knight 等人15详细概述了流感免疫反应面临的困难，包括：免疫优势、血凝素和神经氨酸酶蛋白的病毒突变以避免免疫识别，以及免疫印记和原始抗原原罪。作者描述了这些现象对 B 细胞对感染和疫苗接种反应的影响、这些影响背后的机制，以及如何利用这些知识来开发疫苗，以引发具有广泛或普遍流感毒株反应性的保护性免疫反应。

本期的最后一篇文章重点讨论遗传变异以及对感染和疫苗接种的免疫反应。这是一个在科学文献中得到广泛评论的主题；因此，Ovsyannikova 等人16强调了针对人类冠状病毒的研究，包括四种季节性冠状病毒：SARS-CoV、MERS-CoV 和 SARS-CoV-2。自 COVID-19 大流行开始后的几个月里，PubMed 和预印本服务器上已发表的 SARS-CoV-2 特定文献激增，每周有超过 1000 篇手稿可供查阅。我们的读者看到其中包括许多描述病毒遗传变异并评估病毒和宿主遗传学对感染和疾病严重程度的影响的报告不会感到惊讶。我们完全期望这些强化的研究活动将在未来继续下去，并将提供有关这种新型病原体的大量信息。这项工作还将促进人们更好地了解免疫系统在保护性免疫发展中的动态相互作用。

总的来说，这些文章将为读者提供有关感染和疫苗接种免疫反应发展过程中 T 细胞和 B 细胞相互作用的见解。本期还强调了在理解免疫反应的复杂细节方面所取得的进展，以及这些见解目前如何用于指导疫苗开发。每篇文章都概述了目前正在研究的主要领域，这些领域有望在我们对免疫力如何发展的理解方面取得新的进展。