Abstract Understanding the governing mechanisms of atmosphere–wave–ocean​ interactions is critical for unravelling the formation and evolution mechanisms of severe weather phenomena. This study aims at investigating the effects of atmosphere–wave–ocean​ feedbacks on a Mediterranean tropical-like cyclone (medicane), occurred on 27–30 September 2018 at the central-eastern Mediterranean Sea and characterized by severe environmental and socioeconomic impact. To unveil the interactions across the air–sea interface, the medicane was simulated by an integrated modelling system consisting of the Chemical Hydrological Atmospheric Ocean wave System (CHAOS), upgraded by embedding to it the Nucleus for European Modelling of the Ocean (NEMO) as ocean circulation component. Coupled simulations revealed that air–seaheat transfer and Ekman pumping, bringing sub-surface cold waters in upper ocean layers (upwelling), caused SST cooling ( ∼ 2–3 °C). SST cooling triggered a negative feedback loop procedure tending to balance between atmospheric and ocean processes. It also attenuated the cyclone and, subsequently, reduced the atmospheric energy embedded in ocean through the upper ocean vertical stratification weakening, thus, upper ocean vertical mixing, upwelling and SST cooling. The waves adjusted this feedback loop making the system more resistant in air–sea flux variations. Waves additionally weakened the cyclone not only due to the kinetic energy loss in the lower-atmosphere but also due to the enhancement of SST cooling which is attributed to the strengthening of Ekman pumping and vertical mixing, forced by wind stress increase. Nevertheless, waves partially balanced the air–wave–sea exchanges through the slight enthalpy flux gain under high wind conditions which is explained by considering the increase of enthalpy transfer coefficient in rougher sea areas.

中文翻译：

---

调查大气-波浪-海洋相互作用对地中海热带气旋的影响

摘要 了解大气-波浪-海洋相互作用的控制机制对于揭示恶劣天气现象的形成和演化机制至关重要。本研究旨在调查大气-波浪-海洋反馈对 2018 年 9 月 27 日至 30 日发生在地中海中东部并具有严重环境和社会经济影响的地中海热带气旋（medicane）的影响。为了揭示海气界面的相互作用，该药物由一个由化学水文大气海浪系统 (CHAOS) 组成的集成建模系统进行模拟，并通过嵌入欧洲海洋建模核心 (NEMO) 升级为海洋环流成分。耦合模拟表明，空气-海热传递和 Ekman 泵送，将次表层冷水带入上层海洋（上升流），导致 SST 冷却（~2-3°C）。SST 冷却触发了一个负反馈循环程序，以平衡大气和海洋过程。它还减弱了气旋，随后通过上层海洋垂直分层减弱，从而减少了嵌入海洋的大气能量，从而使上层海洋垂直混合、上升流和海温变冷。波浪调整了这个反馈回路，使系统在海气通量变化中更具抵抗力。波浪还削弱了气旋，这不仅是由于低层大气的动能损失，而且是由于 SST 冷却的增强，这归因于 Ekman 泵送和垂直混合的加强，风应力增加。尽管如此，