Predation threat impacts prey behavior, physiology, and fitness. Stress-mediated alterations to the paternal epigenome can be transmitted to offspring via the germline, conferring a potential advantage to offspring in predator-rich environments. While intergenerational epigenetic transmission of paternal experience has been demonstrated in mammals, how paternal predator exposure might alter offspring phenotypes across development is unstudied. We exposed male mice to a predator odor (2,4,5-trimethylthiazoline, TMT) or a neutral odor (banana extract) prior to mating and measured offspring behavioral phenotypes throughout development, together with adult stress reactivity and candidate gene expression in the prefrontal cortex, hippocampus, amygdala, and hypothalamus. We predicted that offspring of TMT-exposed males would be less active, would display elevated anxiety-like behaviors, and would have a more efficient stress response relative to controls, phenotypes that should enhance predator avoidance in a high predation risk environment. Unexpectedly, we found that offspring of TMT-exposed males are more active, exhibit less anxiety-like behavior, and have decreased baseline plasma corticosterone relative to controls. Effects of paternal treatment on neural gene expression were limited to the prefrontal cortex, with increased mineralocorticoid receptor expression and a trend towards increased Bdnf expression in offspring of TMT-exposed males. These results suggest that fathers exposed to predation threat produce offspring that are buffered against non-acute stressors and, potentially, better adapted to a predator-dense environment because they avoid trade-offs between predator avoidance and foraging and reproduction. This study provides evidence that ecologically relevant paternal experience can be transmitted through the germline, and can impact offspring phenotypes throughout development.

捕食威胁会影响猎物的行为，生理和适应度。应激介导的父系表观基因组的改变可以通过种系传递给后代，从而在捕食者丰富的环境中为后代赋予潜在优势。虽然在哺乳动物中已经证明了父系经验的代际表观遗传传递，但尚未研究父本捕食者如何暴露可能改变整个发育过程中的后代表型。我们在交配前将雄性小鼠暴露于捕食者的气味（2,4,5-三甲基噻唑啉，TMT）或中性气味（香蕉提取物），并在整个发育过程中测量其后代行为表型，以及成年应激反应性和前额叶中候选基因的表达皮质，海马，杏仁核和下丘脑。我们预测暴露于TMT的雄性的后代活动较少，会表现出较高的焦虑样行为，并且相对于对照表现出更有效的应激反应，这种表现型应在高捕食风险环境中增强对捕食者的回避。出乎意料的是，我们发现，与对照组相比，暴露于TMT的雄性的后代更活跃，表现出更少的焦虑样行为，并且基线血浆皮质酮水平降低。父亲治疗对神经基因表达的影响仅限于额叶前皮质，盐皮质激素受体表达增加，并且有增加趋势 表现出较少的焦虑样行为，并且相对于对照组，基线血浆皮质酮水平降低。父亲治疗对神经基因表达的影响仅限于前额叶皮层，盐皮质激素受体表达增加，并且有增加趋势 表现出较少的焦虑样行为，并且相对于对照组的基线血浆皮质酮水平降低。父亲治疗对神经基因表达的影响仅限于前额叶皮层，盐皮质激素受体表达增加，并且有增加趋势Bdnf在TMT暴露的雄性后代中的表达。这些结果表明，遭受捕食威胁的父亲的后代可以缓冲非急性应激源，并可能更好地适应捕食者密集的环境，因为它们避免了在避免捕食者与觅食和繁殖之间的权衡。这项研究提供了证据，表明与生态相关的父亲经验可以通过种系传播，并且可以影响整个发育过程中的后代表型。