Pest and disease risk factors causing maize yield and kernel quality issues in subtropical areas of North America (between 35°N and 23.5°N latitude) are reviewed: preharvest Aspergillus flavus (Link) (Deuteromycetes: Moniliales) infection and propagation in maize ears and ear injury principally caused by Helicoverpa zea (Boddie) and Spodoptera frugiperda (J. E. Smith) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae). Risk is affected by potentially interacting factors of maize genetics, ear feeding with insects, fungal inoculum and growth, and weather (rainfall, temperature, and humidity). This review gives special attention to integration of the most efficient pest and disease management strategy combinations and the potential interaction of insect ear feeding and A. flavus occurrence. Management strategies reviewed include maximizing partial genetic resistance to A. flavus and selection of appropriate hybrids for the area, biological control of A. flavus using non-aflatoxigenic strains, avoiding pests and diseases using cultural practices like early planting, and reducing H. zea and S. frugiperda ear injury using Bt transgenes. Understanding the combined influences and identifying combined management approaches may lead to reduced aflatoxin risk and maintaining yield. This review focuses on subtropical areas of North America because the amount of maize produced in warm environments within or similar to subtropical maize production areas is likely to increase due to projected increases in demand for maize and predicted increases in temperature may increase pest and disease risk.

中文翻译：

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北美亚热带地区玉米源性昆虫伤害和黄曲霉毒素积累的风险因素和管理策略概述

综述了北美洲亚热带地区（北纬35°至23.5°N之间）引起玉米产量和籽粒质量问题的病虫害和疾病风险因素：收获前黄曲霉（链接）（氘菌：:子）在玉米穗和根中的传播和繁殖。耳部损伤主要由Helicoverpa zea（Boddie）和Spodoptera frugiperda（JE Smith）（鳞翅目：夜蛾科）引起。风险受到玉米遗传，与昆虫一起进食，真菌接种物和生长以及天气（降雨，温度和湿度）的潜在相互作用因素的影响。这篇综述特别关注了最有效的病虫害管理策略组合的整合以及昆虫的耳朵喂食和黄曲霉菌的发生。审查的管理策略包括最大程度地增强对黄曲霉的部分遗传抗性和选择适合该地区的杂种，使用非黄曲霉毒素菌株对黄曲霉进行生物防治，采用早期种植等文化习俗避免病虫害和减少玉米和黑麦草的危害。弗氏链球菌使用Bt转基因的耳朵损伤。了解综合影响并确定综合管理方法可能会降低黄曲霉毒素的风险并保持产量。这次审查的重点是北美的亚热带地区，因为在温暖的环境中，在亚热带玉米生产地区内或与之相似的玉米产量可能会增加，这是由于预计的玉米需求增长，而预计的温度升高可能会增加病虫害和疾病风险。