Owing to production, usage, and disposal of nano-enabled products as well as fragmentation of bulk materials, anthropogenic nanoscale particles (NPs) can enter the natural environment and through different compartments (air, soil, and water) end up into the sea. With the continuous increase in production and associated emissions and discharges, they can reach concentrations able to exceed toxicity thresholds for living species inhabiting marine coastal areas. Behavior and fate of NPs in marine waters are driven by transformation processes occurring as a function of NP intrinsic and extrinsic properties in the receiving seawaters. All those aspects have been overlooked in ecological risk assessment. This review critically reports ecotoxicity studies in which size distribution, surface charges and bio−nano interactions have been considered for a more realistic risk assessment of NPs in marine environment. Two emerging and relevant NPs, the metal-based titanium dioxide (TiO2), and polystyrene (PS), a proxy for nanoplastics, are reviewed, and their impact on marine biota (from planktonic species to invertebrates and fish) is discussed as a function of particle size and surface charges (negative vs. positive), which affect their behavior and interaction with the biological material. Uptake of NPs is related to their nanoscale size; however, in vivo studies clearly demonstrated that transformation (agglomerates/aggregates) occurring in both artificial and natural seawater drive to different exposure routes and biological responses at cellular and organism level. Adsorption of single particles or agglomerates onto the body surface or their internalization in feces can impair motility and affect sinking or floating behavior with consequences on populations and ecological function. Particle complex dynamics in natural seawater is almost unknown, although it determines the effective exposure scenarios. Based on the latest predicted environmental concentrations for TiO2 and PS NPs in the marine environment, current knowledge gaps and future research challenges encompass the comprehensive study of bio−nano interactions. As such, the analysis of NP biomolecular coronas can enable a better assessment of particle uptake and related cellular pathways leading to toxic effects. Moreover, the formation of an environmentally derived corona (i.e., eco-corona) in seawater accounts for NP physical–chemical alterations, rebounding on interaction with living organisms and toxicity.

中文翻译：

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海洋环境中人为粒子的行为和生物相互作用，以进行更现实的生态风险评估

由于纳米产品的生产、使用和处置以及散装材料的破碎，人为纳米颗粒 (NPs) 可以进入自然环境，并通过不同的隔间（空气、土壤和水）最终进入海洋。随着生产和相关排放和排放的不断增加，它们的浓度可能会超过居住在海洋沿海地区的生物的毒性阈值。NPs 在海水中的行为和归宿是由在接收海水中作为 NP 内在和外在特性的函数发生的转化过程驱动的。所有这些方面在生态风险评估中都被忽视了。这篇综述批判性地报告了生态毒性研究，其中尺寸分布，表面电荷和生物纳米相互作用已被考虑用于对海洋环境中的纳米颗粒进行更现实的风险评估。回顾了两种新兴的相关 NP，即金属基二氧化钛 (TiO2) 和纳米塑料的代表聚苯乙烯 (PS)，并讨论了它们对海洋生物群（从浮游物种到无脊椎动物和鱼类）的影响颗粒大小和表面电荷（负与正），这会影响它们的行为和与生物材料的相互作用。NPs 的吸收与其纳米尺寸有关；然而，体内研究清楚地表明，人工和天然海水中发生的转化（附聚物/聚集体）会导致细胞和生物体水平的不同暴露途径和生物反应。单个颗粒或团块吸附到体表或在粪便中内化会损害运动能力并影响下沉或漂浮行为，从而对种群和生态功能产生影响。天然海水中的粒子复合动力学几乎是未知的，尽管它决定了有效的暴露场景。基于海洋环境中 TiO2 和 PS NPs 的最新预测环境浓度，当前的知识差距和未来的研究挑战包括对生物纳米相互作用的综合研究。因此，对 NP 生物分子电晕的分析可以更好地评估粒子吸收和导致毒性作用的相关细胞途径。此外，海水中环境衍生的电晕（即生态电晕）的形成是 NP 物理化学变化的原因，