Dichlofluanid has long been employed as a fungicide in agriculture and has been massively introduced in antifouling paints for boat hulls over the last two decades. One of the most important toxic effects of antifoulants is represented by immunosuppression in marine invertebrates, which can be analysed in vitro with a number of short-term toxicity assays on haemocytes. Among bioindicators, the colonial ascidian Botryllus schlosseri is a useful candidate; it is a filter-feeding organism living in the water-sediment interface that is found worldwide and is sensitive to antifouling xenobiotics. Dichlofluanid adversely affects both immunocyte lines (phagocyte and cytotoxic lines) after exposure to sublethal concentrations. At 0.05 μM (16.65 μg/l), dichlofluanid induced haemocyte apoptosis and cell shrinkage with a decrease in both motility and phagocytosis. At the lowest concentration (0.01 μM, 3.33 μg/l), inhibition of pivotal enzymatic activities of phagocytes and cytotoxic cells occurred. At the highest concentration (0.1 μM, 33.3 μg/l), dichlofluanid increased glutathione oxidation, leading to stress conditions. The effects of dichlofluanid on immune defence responses are similar to those of organometal-based antifoulants (i.e., organotin compounds and zinc pyrithione), and its use in coastal areas requires attention.

中文翻译：

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海鞘中的免疫毒性：有机锡替代的防污化合物。二氯氟苯胺案

狄氏氟苯胺长期以来在农业中用作杀真菌剂，并且在过去的二十年中被大量引入船壳的防污涂料中。海洋无脊椎动物的免疫抑制作用代表了防污剂最重要的毒性作用之一，可以通过对血细胞的许多短期毒性试验进行体外分析。在生物指示剂中，殖民地海生Botryllus schlosseri是有用的候选人；它是生活在水-沉积物界面中的滤食性生物，在全球范围内均对防污异生生物敏感。暴露于致死浓度后，二氯氟苯胺对免疫细胞系（吞噬细胞和细胞毒性细胞系）均产生不利影响。在0.05μM（16.65μg/ l）下，双氯氟苯胺诱导血细胞凋亡和细胞萎缩，而运动性和吞噬作用均降低。在最低浓度（0.01μM，3.33μg/ l）下，吞噬细胞和细胞毒性细胞的关键酶活性受到抑制。在最高浓度（0.1μM，33.3μg/ l）下，二氯氟苯胺增加了谷胱甘肽的氧化，从而导致应激状态。二氯氟苯胺对免疫防御反应的作用类似于有机金属基防污剂（即有机锡化合物和巯氧吡啶锌），