In this review, we have analyzed the studies on the “mismatch paradigm” or “contrasting paradigm”, in which the word indicates an intent that is opposite to the gesture in dogs and children. The studies on children highlighted the importance of the type of gestural messages that, when delivered in a non-ostensive manner, assume less value than the verbal indication; whereas, when more emphasis is given to the gestures, it produces opposite results. Word-trained dogs appear to rely more on words, but in the absence of such specific training, dogs rely more on gestures either in transitive or intransitive actions. Moreover, gestural communication appears easier to generalize, since dogs respond equally well to the gestural messages of familiar persons and strangers, whereas their performance lowers when a stranger provides a vocal message. Visual signals trigger faster responses than auditory signals, whereas verbal indications can at most equal the gestural latencies, but never overcome them. Female dogs appeared to be more proficient in the interpretation of gestural commands, while males performed better in the case of verbal commands. Based on a PRISMA analyses from the Web of Science database, three papers on children and four on dogs were retrieved. Our analyses revealed that gestures are more reliable reference points than words for dogs and children. Future studies should focus on choices related to objects of different values for the subjects. Moreover, the choices of dogs should be compared using known and unknown objects, which might help clarify how familiarity with the objects could differently influence their responses.

中文翻译：

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视觉-声音不匹配范例中的多模式信号传递：在交流方法中狗和孩子之间的相似性。

在这篇综述中，我们分析了关于“不匹配范式”或“对比范式”的研究，其中单词表示与狗和儿童的手势相反的意图。有关儿童的研究强调了手势信息的重要性，这种手势以非表面方式传递时，其价值要小于口头指示。反之，当更多地强调手势时，会产生相反的结果。受单词训练的狗似乎更多地依赖单词，但是在没有这种特定训练的情况下，狗在传递或不传递动作中更多地依赖手势。而且，手势交流似乎更容易概括，因为狗对熟悉的人和陌生人的手势信息反应同样好，而当陌生人提供语音信息时，它们的表现就会降低。视觉信号比听觉信号触发更快的响应，而言语指示最多可以等于手势潜伏期，但永远无法克服。雌狗似乎更精通手势命令，而雄性狗在口头命令方面表现更好。根据来自Web of Science数据库的PRISMA分析，检索了三篇有关儿童的论文和四篇关于狗的论文。我们的分析表明，手势比狗和儿童的单词更可靠。未来的研究应集中在与主题具有不同价值的对象相关的选择上。此外，应该使用已知对象和未知对象来比较狗的选择，这可能有助于阐明对对象的熟悉程度如何不同地影响其反应。