Context Land use and land cover (LULC) changes may affect the provision of ecosystem services. However, little is known how LULC changes influence the spatio-temporal variation in ecosystem service and their interactions along altitudinal gradients. Objectives Here we assessed the spatio-temporal variation of eight ecosystem services in an altitudinal gradient between the year of 1986 and 2015, and quantified the effect of LULC transitions on the provision and interactions of ecosystems services. Methods We modelled and mapped eight ecosystem services in an altitudinal gradient characterized by low (< 600 m), middle (600–1200) and high altitudes (> 1200) in Zona da Mata, Minas Gerais state, Brazil. We quantified changes in ecosystem services by contrasting ecosystem service maps between 1986 and 2015, and explored how four common LULC transitions affected the variation and the interactions between the eight ecosystem services. Results The spatio-temporal analysis indicated that six out of eight ecosystem services increased from 1986 to 2015, while soil erosion control and water flow regulation decreased. In areas above 1200 m, regulating services dominated, while in areas below 1200 m provisioning service were most evidenced. LULC transitions from forest to agricultural areas, and vice versa, resulted in trade-offs between provisioning and regulating ecosystem services. Conclusions LULC changes drive the spatio-temporal variation of ecosystem services along an altitudinal gradient with contrasting biophysical conditions. Future management of ecosystem services in the landscapes should take into the account the biophysical conditions and the consequences of specific LULC transitions.

中文翻译：

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土地利用变化驱动巴西生态系统服务的时空变化及其沿海拔梯度的相互作用

背景 土地利用和土地覆盖 (LULC) 的变化可能会影响生态系统服务的提供。然而，人们对 LULC 变化如何影响生态系统服务的时空变化及其沿海拔梯度的相互作用知之甚少。目标 在这里，我们评估了 1986 年至 2015 年间海拔梯度中八种生态系统服务的时空变化，并量化了 LULC 转变对生态系统服务的提供和相互作用的影响。方法 我们在巴西米纳斯吉拉斯州的 Zona da Mata 以低海拔 (< 600 m)、中海拔 (600–1200) 和高海拔 (> 1200) 为特征的海拔梯度中对八种生态系统服务进行建模和制图。我们通过对比 1986 年至 2015 年间的生态系统服务地图来量化生态系统服务的变化，并探讨了四种常见的 LULC 转换如何影响八种生态系统服务之间的变化和相互作用。结果 时空分析表明，从 1986 年到 2015 年，8 个生态系统服务中有 6 个增加，而土壤侵蚀控制和水流量调节减少。海拔1200m以上地区以调节服务为主，海拔1200m以下地区提供服务最为明显。LULC 从森林到农业区的过渡，反之亦然，导致了供应和调节生态系统服务之间的权衡。结论 LULC 变化驱动生态系统服务沿海拔梯度与对比生物物理条件的时空变化。