Upon becoming mothers, women often experience a wage decline-a "motherhood wage penalty." Recent scholarship suggests the penalty's magnitude differs by educational attainment. Yet education is also predictive of when women have children and how many they have, which can affect the wage penalty's size too. Using fixed-effects models and data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979, I estimate heterogeneous effects of motherhood by parity and by age at births, considering how these relationships differ by education. For college graduates, first births were associated with a small wage penalty overall, but the penalty was larger for earlier first births and declined with higher ages at first birth. Women who delayed fertility until their mid-thirties reaped a premium. Second and third births were associated with wage penalties. Less educated women instead faced a wage penalty at all births and delaying fertility did not minimize the penalty.

中文翻译：

---

哪些母亲付出更高的代价？按性别和生育时间划分的孕产妇工资处罚的教育差异。

妇女成为母亲后，常常会遭受工资下降的“母亲工资惩罚”。最近的一项研究表明，刑罚的程度因教育程度而异。然而，教育还可以预测妇女何时生孩子以及生多少胎，这也可能影响工资罚款的规模。使用固定效应模型和1979年全国青年纵向调查的数据，我考虑了同种关系和出生年龄对孕产的不同影响，包括同等和出生年龄。对于大学毕业生，总体而言，头胎与较小的工资罚款相关，但较早的头胎的罚款较大，而头胎的年龄较高则下降。那些将生育力推迟到三十多岁的妇女大赚一笔。第二胎和第三胎与工资处罚有关。受教育程度较低的妇女则在所有分娩时都面临工资罚款，延迟生育并没有使罚款减至最低。