This paper investigates the technological challenges and solutions to defining a reproducible standard for light together with its measurement, from the 18th to 21st century. The arrival and subsequent need to quantify gas lighting led to development of improved measurement methods, which in turn demanded more reliable standards of light, evolving from candle and flame standards to incandescence, and eventually the current radiometric definition. The progression is similarly traced from the plethora of early comparative visual photometry methods through to modern semiconductor instrumentation. The problem of heterochromatic photometry is also examined.

中文翻译：

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光和光度测量的标准化——历史回顾

本文研究了从 18 世纪到 21 世纪定义可重现的光标准及其测量的技术挑战和解决方案。量化气体照明的到来和随后的需求导致了改进的测量方法的发展，这反过来又要求更可靠的光标准，从蜡烛和火焰标准发展到白炽度，最终发展到当前的辐射定义。从早期的大量比较视觉光度测量方法到现代半导体仪器，这一进程同样可以追溯到。还研究了异色光度法的问题。