Crop losses caused by pests and diseases decrease the incomes and threaten the livelihoods of thousands of families worldwide. A good example of the magnitude of these impacts are the massive crop losses experienced by coffee farmers in Central America due to coffee leaf rust. Coffee farmers need agroecosystems that are capable of regulating the negative impacts of pests and diseases while providing other ecosystem services on which their households and society depend. In this study, we aimed to identify the most promising coffee agroforestry systems for regulating diseases and ensuring the provision of other ecosystem services. During two years, in a research network of 61 coffee plots under a wide variety of shade and management conditions in Turrialba, Costa Rica, we quantified primary and secondary coffee losses (yield and economic losses) and indicators of three other ecosystem services: provisioning of agroforestry products (bananas, plantains, other fruits, and timber), maintenance of soil fertility and carbon sequestration. We then performed an analysis of the relationships between losses and ecosystem service indicators. Based on the results of relationships and on three criteria, we identified the coffee agroforestry systems that had the lowest losses due to diseases and that provided desirable levels of agroforestry products, soil fertility and carbon sequestration. We found multiple significant relationships between losses and ecosystem services (including both tradeoffs and synergies) which allowed us to derive recommendations for better management strategies to reduce yield losses. We identified six coffee agroforestry systems (CAFs) as the most promising ones for reducing losses while simultaneously providing other ecosystem services. One of these CAFs was a simple agroforestry system (dominated by service trees), three were medium diversified CAFs and two were highly diversified CAFs (systems including service trees, timber trees, fruit trees and musaceas). The six CAFS differed in their cropping practices and farmer profitability objectives. The six CAFs offer several options for the design of new coffee plantations or for the transformation of existing plantations. Several of this promising CAFs use little fungicides, which is an indicator that the reduction of chemical inputs could be possible. Our results suggest that the regulation of diseases and associated losses in agroforestry systems should be based on, and take advantage of, the positive effects of plant biodiversity, adequate shade cover, good soil fertility, and minimal use of fungicides.

中文翻译：

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咖啡农林业系统能够减少疾病引起的产量和经济损失，同时提供多种生态系统服务

病虫害造成的作物损失减少了收入，并威胁到全世界成千上万家庭的生计。这些影响程度的一个很好的例子是中美洲咖啡农因咖啡叶锈病而遭受的大量作物损失。咖啡农需要的农业生态系统能够调节病虫害的负面影响，同时提供其家庭和社会所依赖的其他生态系统服务。在这项研究中，我们旨在确定最有前途的咖啡农林业系统，用于调节疾病并确保提供其他生态系统服务。两年间，在哥斯达黎加 Turrialba 的 61 个咖啡园在各种树荫和管理条件下的研究网络中，我们量化了初级和次级咖啡损失（产量和经济损失）以及其他三个生态系统服务的指标：提供农林业产品（香蕉、大蕉、其他水果和木材）、保持土壤肥力和碳固存。然后，我们对损失与生态系统服务指标之间的关系进行了分析。基于关系的结果和三个标准，我们确定了因病害造成的损失最低的咖啡农林业系统，并提供了理想的农林业产品、土壤肥力和碳固存水平。我们发现损失和生态系统服务之间存在多种重要关系（包括权衡和协同作用），这使我们能够得出关于更好的管理策略的建议，以减少产量损失。我们确定了六个咖啡农林业系统 (CAF) 作为最有希望减少损失同时提供其他生态系统服务的系统。这些 CAF 之一是简单的农林业系统（以服务树为主），三个是中等多样化的 CAF，两个是高度多样化的 CAF（系统包括服务树、用材树、果树和 musaceas）。六个 CAFS 的种植方式和农民盈利目标各不相同。六个 CAF 为新咖啡种植园的设计或现有种植园的改造提供了多种选择。一些这种有前途的 CAF 使用很少的杀菌剂，这表明减少化学投入是可能的。我们的结果表明，农林业系统中疾病和相关损失的调节应基于，