Tversky and Kahneman introduced the term framing for the finding that people give different answers to the same question depending on the way it is posed. One form of framing involves presenting the same outcome as either a gain or a loss. An experiment on starlings by Marsh and Kacelnik suggests that this form of framing occurs in non-humans. We argue that the experimental result demonstrates framing in the general sense of context dependence but does not provide compelling evidence of framing in terms of gains and losses. A version of scalar utility theory which is extended to include the possibility of memory errors accounts for the data and suggests future lines of research.

中文翻译：

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收益与损失，还是因混乱而产生的语境依赖性？

特维尔斯基（Tversky）和卡尼曼（Kahneman）引入了框架一词，是为了使人们根据提出的方式对同一问题给出不同的答案。一种框架形式涉及呈现与获利或亏损相同的结果。Marsh和Kacelnik对star鸟进行的实验表明，这种成帧形式发生在非人类中。我们认为，实验结果证明了在上下文依赖的一般意义上的构架，但没有提供关于成败得失的令人信服的证据。标量效用理论的一种版本，扩展到包括内存错误的可能性，可以解释数据并提出未来的研究方向。