This paper is part of the celebration of the 50th anniversary of founding of the journal Hormones and Behavior, the official journal of the Society for Behavioral Neuroendocrinology. All sex differences in phenotypic development stem from the sexual imbalance in X and Y chromosomes, which are the only known differences in XX and XY zygotes. The sex chromosome genes act within cells to cause differences in phenotypes of XX and XY cells throughout the body. In the gonad, they determine the type of gonad, leading to differences in secretion of testicular vs. ovarian hormones, which cause further sex differences in tissue function. These current ideas of sexual differentiation are briefly contrasted with a hormones-only view of sexual differentiation of the last century. The multiple, independent action of diverse sex-biasing agents means that sex-biased factors can be synergistic, increasing sex differences, or compensatory, making the two sexes more equal. Several animal models have been fruitful in demonstrating sex chromosome effects, and interactions with gonadal hormones. MRI studies of human brains demonstrate variation in brain structure associated with both differences in gonadal hormones, and in the number of X and Y chromosomes. Five unanswered questions are posed as a challenge to future investigators to improve understanding of sexual differentiation throughout the body.

中文翻译：

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大脑和其他组织的性别分化：接下来的50年中的五个问题。

这篇论文是庆祝《激素与行为》杂志成立50周年的一部分，该杂志是行为神经内分泌学会的官方杂志。表型发育的所有性别差异均源于X和Y染色体的性别不平衡，这是XX和XY受精卵中唯一已知的差异。性染色体基因在细胞内起作用，引起全身XX和XY细胞表型的差异。在性腺中，他们确定性腺的类型，从而导致睾丸激素和卵巢激素的分泌不同，从而进一步导致组织功能的性别差异。这些当前的性别差异观念与上个世纪仅激素的性别差异观点形成了鲜明对比。倍数 各种性别偏见因素的独立作用意味着，性别偏见因素可以产生协同作用，增加性别差异或产生补偿作用，从而使两个性别更加平等。几种动物模型在证明性染色体效应以及与性腺激素的相互作用方面卓有成效。人类大脑的MRI研究表明，性腺激素的差异以及X和Y染色体的数量均与大脑结构的变化有关。五个悬而未决的问题对未来的研究人员构成挑战，以增进他们对全身性别分化的了解。人类大脑的MRI研究表明，性腺激素的差异以及X和Y染色体的数量均与大脑结构的变化有关。五个悬而未决的问题对未来的研究人员构成挑战，以增进他们对全身性别分化的了解。人类大脑的MRI研究表明，性腺激素的差异以及X和Y染色体的数量均与大脑结构的变化有关。五个悬而未决的问题对未来的研究人员构成挑战，以增进他们对全身性别分化的了解。