Nanomaterials (NMs) are widely used in consumer and industrial products, as well as in the field of nanomedicine. Despite their wide array of applications, NMs are regarded as foreign entities by the body and thus induce various immune reactions. In mammals, NMs trigger differential recognition by immune cells such as macrophages, causing perturbation of the immune system. Studies on the pattern recognition of NMs have revealed that the Toll-like receptor signaling pathway plays an essential role in NM-induced innate immunity. However, effects caused by physicochemical properties of NMs on immune response and how NMs are recognized by immune cells are not fully understood. Furthermore, the complexity of the mammalian immune system and interspecies variation are still being debated, and the discordant results warrant the need to address these issues. Drosophila melanogaster has gained popularity as a model to study nanotoxicity. Drosophila innate immunity has extensively been studied, providing insights into our understanding of key signaling cascades involved, and importantly it has conserved immune-related genes and mechanogenetic pathways that represents a useful basis for studying its biological response at molecular level to environmental contaminants such as NMs. Moreover, various genetic tools and reagents enable to elucidate the molecular mechanisms underlying the internalization of NMs by immune cells. Furthermore, numerous forward and reverse genetic approaches can be employed to dissect complex biological processes, such as identifying signal transduction pathways and their core components involved in NM-induced immune responses. This review presents an overview of Drosophila innate immunity, as well as summarizes the impact of NM exposure on immune response in Drosophila. We also highlight the recent advancement of suitable methodologies and tools regarding the use of Drosophila as a model for studying the immune-related toxicity of NMs, taking into account the limitations associated with studying NM-induced toxicity in the mammalian system.

中文翻译：

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果蝇果蝇作为模型生物研究免疫纳米毒性的用途。

纳米材料（NMs）广泛用于消费品和工业产品以及纳米医学领域。尽管应用广泛，但NM被人体视为异物，因此会诱发各种免疫反应。在哺乳动物中，NMs触发免疫细胞（例如巨噬细胞）的差异识别，从而引起免疫系统的紊乱。对NMs模式识别的研究表明，Toll样受体信号通路在NMs诱导的先天免疫中起着至关重要的作用。然而，由NMs的理化性质对免疫应答以及免疫细胞如何识别NMs引起的影响尚未完全了解。此外，哺乳动物免疫系统的复杂性和种间变异仍在争论中，结果不一致，因此有必要解决这些问题。果蝇（Drosophila melanogaster）作为研究纳米毒性的模型而受到欢迎。果蝇先天免疫已被广泛研究，为我们对所涉及的关键信号级联的理解提供了见识，而且重要的是，它已保存了免疫相关基因和机械生成途径，这为研究其在分子水平上对环境污染物（例如NMs）的生物学反应提供了有用的基础。此外，各种遗传工具和试剂能够阐明免疫细胞使NM内在化的分子机制。此外，可以采用许多正向和反向遗传方法来剖析复杂的生物过程，例如确定信号转导途径及其与NM诱导的免疫反应有关的核心成分。这篇综述介绍了果蝇先天免疫，并总结了NM暴露对果蝇免疫反应的影响。考虑到与研究哺乳动物系统中NM引起的毒性有关的局限性，我们还着重介绍了将果蝇用作研究NMs免疫相关毒性的模型的合适方法和工具的最新进展。