Our ability to provide analgesia in wild and exotic patients is hampered by a lack of species-specific information on effective drugs and protocols. One contributing factor is the difficulty of applying data from traditional laboratory tests of nociception to clinical conditions frequently involving combinations of inflammatory, mechanical, and neuropathic pain. Pain-suppressed behaviors have become a valuable predictor of clinical utility in other species; in this study we extend this framework to red -tailed hawks in a wildlife hospital, in an attempt to develop a new, humane testing method for birds of prey. We scored six behaviors in hawks hospitalized either for orthopedic trauma or for non-painful conditions. These behaviors included: movement about the cage, grooming, head motions, foot shifts, beak clacks, and rouse. Movement, head motions, and beak clacks were all significantly reduced in hawks with recent orthopedic injury, but not in hawks with healed or minor injuries (P<0.05 for all behaviors). However, it should be noted that due to stringent admission criteria, and the difficulties inherent in studying naturally-occuring injury in wild patients, this study only included -subjects in four experimental groups, and this limited our ability to fully investigate confounds within our data. A follow-up experiment was conducted to determine potential effects of buprenorphine, a mu opioid agonist, on the behaviors listed above. Buprenorphine in the absence of pain caused minor, non-significant decreases in most behaviors, and had no effect on head movement frequency. This suggests that head movements in particular may be sensitive to pain but not to sedative side-effects of buprenorphine. Overall, red -tailed hawks with recent orthopedic trauma show consistent and marked red uctions in several normal maintenance behaviors. Head movements, reported for the first time in this study as a potential marker of pain in birds, in particular seem to be insensitive to sedative side effects of buprenorphine, while being a sensitive measu re of affective state in hawks with painful injuries. These behaviors can be scored humanely and with minimal expense, and should be considered for further research on pain and analgesia in avian species.

中文翻译：

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红尾鹰（Buteo jamaicensis）的疼痛抑制行为

由于缺乏关于有效药物和方案的特定物种信息，我们为野生和外来患者提供镇痛的能力受到阻碍。一个促成因素是难以将来自传统实验室伤害感受测试的数据应用于经常涉及炎症性、机械性和神经性疼痛组合的临床病症。疼痛抑制行为已成为其他物种临床效用的重要预测指标；在这项研究中，我们将这个框架扩展到一家野生动物医院的红尾鹰，试图为猛禽开发一种新的、人道的测试方法。我们对因骨科创伤或非疼痛情况住院的鹰派进行了六项行为评分。这些行为包括：在笼子里移动、梳理毛发、头部运动、脚部移动、喙噼啪声和醒来。运动，头部运动，近期有骨科损伤的鹰的喙部和喙部均显着减少，但在愈合或轻伤的鹰中没有（所有行为 P < 0.05）。然而，应该指出的是，由于严格的入院标准，以及研究野生患者自然发生的损伤所固有的困难，本研究仅包括四个实验组中的受试者，这限制了我们充分调查数据中的混杂因素的能力. 进行了后续实验以确定丁丙诺啡（一种μ阿片类激动剂）对上述行为的潜在影响。在没有疼痛的情况下，丁丙诺啡会导致大多数行为的轻微、非显着下降，并且对头部运动频率没有影响。这表明头部运动尤其可能对疼痛敏感，但对丁丙诺啡的镇静副作用不敏感。总体而言，最近有骨科创伤的红尾鹰在几种正常的维护行为中表现出一致且显着的减少。在这项研究中首次报道的头部运动是鸟类疼痛的潜在标志，特别是似乎对丁丙诺啡的镇静副作用不敏感，而对于受伤的鹰来说，它是一种敏感的情感状态。这些行为可以以人道的方式进行评分，并且花费最少，应该考虑用于进一步研究鸟类的疼痛和镇痛。在这项研究中首次报道了作为鸟类疼痛的潜在标志物，尤其是似乎对丁丙诺啡的镇静副作用不敏感，同时是具有疼痛损伤的鹰的情感状态的敏感量度。这些行为可以以人道的方式进行评分，并且花费最少，应该考虑用于进一步研究鸟类的疼痛和镇痛。在这项研究中首次报道了作为鸟类疼痛的潜在标志物，尤其是似乎对丁丙诺啡的镇静副作用不敏感，同时是具有疼痛损伤的鹰的情感状态的敏感量度。这些行为可以以人道的方式进行评分，并且花费最少，应该考虑用于进一步研究鸟类的疼痛和镇痛。