Abstract Aim Agricultural intensification and urbanization are important drivers of biodiversity change in Europe. Different aspects of bee community diversity vary in their sensitivity to these pressures, as well as independently influencing ecosystem service provision (pollination). To obtain a more comprehensive understanding of human impacts on bee diversity across Europe, we assess multiple, complementary indices of diversity. Location One Thousand four hundred and forty six sites across Europe. Methods We collated data on bee occurrence and abundance from the published literature and supplemented them with the PREDICTS database. Using Rao's Quadratic Entropy, we assessed how species, functional and phylogenetic diversity of 1,446 bee communities respond to land‐use characteristics including land‐use class, cropland intensity, human population density and distance to roads. We combined these models with statistically downscaled estimates of land use in 2005 to estimate and map—at a scale of approximately 1 km2—the losses in diversity relative to semi‐natural/natural baseline (the predicted diversity of an uninhabited grid square, consisting only of semi‐natural/natural vegetation). Results We show that—relative to the predicted local diversity in uninhabited semi‐natural/natural habitat—half of all EU27 countries have lost over 10% of their average local species diversity and two‐thirds of countries have lost over 5% of their average local functional and phylogenetic diversity. All diversity measures were generally lower in pasture and higher‐intensity cropland than in semi‐natural/natural vegetation, but facets of diversity showed less consistent responses to human population density. These differences have led to marked spatial mismatches in losses: losses in phylogenetic diversity were in some areas almost 20 percentage points (pp.) more severe than losses in species diversity, but in other areas losses were almost 40 pp. less severe. Main conclusions These results highlight the importance of exploring multiple measures of diversity when prioritizing and evaluating conservation actions, as species‐diverse assemblages may be phylogenetically and functionally impoverished, potentially threatening pollination service provision.

中文翻译：

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生物多样性丧失的维度：土地利用空间不匹配对欧洲蜜蜂物种、功能和系统发育多样性的影响

摘要 目的 农业集约化和城市化是欧洲生物多样性变化的重要驱动因素。蜜蜂群落多样性的不同方面对这些压力的敏感性不同，并且独立影响生态系统服务的提供（授粉）。为了更全面地了解人类对整个欧洲蜜蜂多样性的影响，我们评估了多个互补的多样性指数。位置 欧洲有 1446 个站点。方法 我们从已发表的文献中整理了有关蜜蜂出现和丰度的数据，并用 PREDICTS 数据库对其进行了补充。使用 Rao 的二次熵，我们评估了 1,446 个蜜蜂群落的物种、功能和系统发育多样性如何响应土地利用特征，包括土地利用类别、耕地强度、人口密度和到道路的距离。我们将这些模型与 2005 年土地利用的统计缩小估计相结合，以大约 1 平方公里的尺度估计和绘制相对于半自然/自然基线的多样性损失（无人居住的网格正方形的预测多样性，仅包括半自然/自然植被）。结果 我们表明，相对于无人居住的半自然/自然栖息地的预测的当地多样性而言，所有欧盟 27 个国家中，有一半的国家失去了其平均当地物种多样性的 10% 以上，三分之二的国家失去了其平均水平的 5% 以上。局部功能和系统发育多样性。牧场和高强度农田的所有多样性测量值普遍低于半自然/自然植被，但多样性的各个方面对人口密度的反应不太一致。这些差异导致损失的显着空间错配：在某些地区，系统发育多样性的损失比物种多样性的损失严重近 20 个百分点 (pp.)，但在其他地区，损失的严重程度要低近 40 个百分点。主要结论 这些结果强调了在优先考虑和评估保护行动时探索多种多样性措施的重要性，因为物种多样化的组合可能在系统发育和功能上贫乏，可能威胁授粉服务的提供。但在其他领域，损失几乎减少了 40 个百分点。不那么严重。主要结论 这些结果强调了在优先考虑和评估保护行动时探索多种多样性措施的重要性，因为物种多样化的组合可能在系统发育和功能上贫乏，可能威胁授粉服务的提供。但在其他领域，损失几乎减少了 40 个百分点。不那么严重。主要结论 这些结果强调了在优先考虑和评估保护行动时探索多种多样性措施的重要性，因为物种多样化的组合可能在系统发育和功能上贫乏，可能威胁授粉服务的提供。