The endoderm germ layer contributes to the respiratory and gastrointestinal tracts and to all of their associated organs. Over the past decade, studies in vertebrate model organisms, including frog, fish, chick, and mouse, have greatly enhanced our understanding of the molecular basis of endoderm organ development. We review this progress with a focus on early stages of endoderm organogenesis including endoderm formation, gut tube morphogenesis and patterning, and organ specification. Lastly, we discuss how developmental mechanisms that regulate endoderm organogenesis are used to direct differentiation of embryonic stem cells into specific adult cell types, which function to alleviate disease symptoms in animal models.

中文翻译：

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脊椎动物内胚层发育和器官形成。

内胚层胚层有助于呼吸道和胃肠道及其所有相关器官。在过去的十年中，对脊椎动物模型生物（包括青蛙、鱼、小鸡和小鼠）的研究极大地增强了我们对内胚层器官发育的分子基础的理解。我们回顾了这一进展，重点关注内胚层器官发生的早期阶段，包括内胚层形成、肠管形态发生和图案形成以及器官规格。最后，我们讨论了如何使用调节内胚层器官发生的发育机制来指导胚胎干细胞分化为特定的成体细胞类型，从而减轻动物模型中的疾病症状。