The climatic cycles with subsequent glacial and intergalcial periods have had a great impact on the distribution and evolution of species. Using genetic analytical tools considerably increased our understanding of these processes. In this review I therefore give an overview of the molecular biogeography of Europe. For means of simplification, I distinguish between three major biogeographical entities: (i) "Mediterranean" with Mediterranean differentiation and dispersal centres, (ii) "Continental" with extra-Mediterranean centres and (iii) "Alpine" and/or "Arctic" with recent alpine and/or arctic distribution patterns. These different molecular biogeographical patterns are presented using actual examples. Many "Mediterranean" species are differentiated into three major European genetic lineages, which are due to glacial isolation in the three major Mediterranean peninsulas. Postglacial expansion in this group of species is mostly influenced by the barriers of the Pyrenees and the Alps with four resulting main patterns of postglacial range expansions. However, some cases are known with less than one genetic lineage per Mediterranean peninsula on the one hand, and others with a considerable genetic substructure within each of the Mediterranean peninsulas, Asia Minor and the Maghreb. These structures within the Mediterranean sub-centres are often rather strong and in several cases even predate the Pleistocene. For the "Continental" species, it could be shown that the formerly supposed postglacial spread from eastern Palearctic expansion centres is mostly not applicable. Quite the contrary, most of these species apparently had extra-Mediterranean centres of survival in Europe with special importance of the perialpine regions, the Carpathian Basin and parts of the Balkan Peninsula. In the group of "Alpine" and/or "Arctic" species, several molecular biogeographical patterns have been found, which support and improve the postulates based on distribution patterns and pollen records. Thus, genetic studies support the strong linkage between southwestern Alps and Pyrenees, northeastern Alps and Carpathians as well as southeastern Alps and the Dinaric mountain systems, hereby allowing conclusions on the glacial distribution patterns of these species. Furthermore, genetic analyses of arctic-alpine disjunct species support their broad distribution in the periglacial areas at least during the last glacial period. The detailed understanding of the different phylogeographical structures is essential for the management of the different evolutionary significant units of species and the conservation of their entire genetic diversity. Furthermore, the distribution of genetic diversity due to biogeographical reasons helps understanding the differing regional vulnerabilities of extant populations.

中文翻译：

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欧洲的分子生物地理学：更新世周期和冰川后趋势。

随之而来的冰川期和冰川期的气候周期对物种的分布和演变产生了很大的影响。使用遗传分析工具大大增加了我们对这些过程的理解。因此，在这篇综述中，我概述了欧洲的分子生物地理学。为了简化，我将三个主要的生物地理实体区分开：（i）具有地中海区分和分散中心的“地中海”，（ii）具有地中海外中心的“大陆”，以及（iii）“高山”和/或“北极”最近的高山和/或北极分布模式。使用实际示例介绍了这些不同的分子生物地理模式。许多“地中海”物种被分为三个主要的欧洲遗传谱系，这是由于地中海三大半岛的冰川隔离所致。该组物种的冰期后扩张主要受比利牛斯山脉和阿尔卑斯山的屏障影响，形成了四种导致冰期后范围扩张的主要模式。但是，已知有些情况下，一方面每个地中海半岛的遗传谱系少于一个，而另一些情况下，每个地中海半岛，小亚细亚和马格里布都有相当大的遗传亚结构。地中海次中心的这些结构通常相当坚固，在某些情况下甚至早于更新世。对于“大陆”物种，可以证明，以前假定的从古北东扩张中心的冰期后扩散几乎不适用。恰恰相反，这些物种中的大多数显然在欧洲具有地中海以外的生存中心​​，特别是对周边山脉，喀尔巴阡盆地和巴尔干半岛部分地区尤为重要。在“高山”和/或“北极”物种的组中，已经发现了几种分子生物地理模式，它们根据分布模式和花粉记录来支持和改善假设。因此，遗传学研究支持西南阿尔卑斯山和比利牛斯山脉，东北阿尔卑斯山和喀尔巴阡山脉以及东南阿尔卑斯山和迪纳里克山脉系统之间的紧密联系，从而可以得出这些物种的冰川分布模式的结论。此外，对北极高山分离物种的遗传分析至少在最后一个冰川时期支持了它们在冰缘地区的广泛分布。对不同植物地理结构的详细了解对于管理物种的不同进化重要单位及其整个遗传多样性的保护至关重要。此外，由于生物地理原因造成的遗传多样性分布有助于了解现存种群的不同区域脆弱性。