Flavor preferences begin to be shaped long before one’s first taste of solid food. Here we summarize the insights gleaned from scientific research from both experimental and longitudinal studies. As will be discussed, this research suggests that infants learn about the types of foods eaten by their mothers during pregnancy and lactation. Such experiences bias acceptance of particular flavors and may ‘program’ later food preferences. In this way, this is the first way (but not the only way) in which culture-specific food preferences are likely initiated early in life. During the past decade, experimental studies revealed that the environment in which the human fetus lives, the amniotic sac, changes as a function of the food choices of the mother since dietary flavors are transmitted and flavor amniotic fluid (Mennella, Johnson, & Beauchamp, 1995). Experiences with such flavors lead to increased enjoyment and preference for these flavors at birth and during weaning. For example, exposure to dietary transmitted flavors such as garlic or anise in amniotic fluid has been shown to influence the newborn’s facial, mouthing, and orienting responses to those odors immediately postpartum (Hepper, 1988; Schaal, Marlier, & Soussignan, 2000). Some of these same flavors will later be experienced by infants in their mother’s milk since human milk is composed of flavors which directly reflect the foods, spices and beverages ingested by the mother (Mennella & Beauchamp, 1991; Mennella et al., 1995). Like that observed in other mammals, infants who were exposed to a flavor (i.e. carrots) in either amniotic fluid or mother’s milk behaved differently in response to that flavor in a food base than did non-exposed control infants (Mennella, Jagnow, & Beauchamp, 2001). Specifically, previously exposed infants displayed fewer negative facial expressions while feeding the carrot-flavored cereal when compared to the plain cereal. Moreover, those infants who were exposed to carrots prenatally were perceived by their mothers as enjoying the carrot-flavored cereal more when compared to the plain cereal. Postnatal exposure has similar consequences thus highlighting the importance of a varied diet for both pregnant and lactating women. That amniotic fluid and breast milk share a commonality in flavor profiles with the foods eaten by the mother suggests that breast milk may ‘bridge’ the experiences with flavors in utero to those in solid foods. Moreover, the sweetness and textural properties of human milk, such as viscosity and mouth coating, vary from mother to mother, thus suggesting that breastfeeding, unlike formula feeding, provides the infant with the potential for a rich source of varying chemosensory experiences. The types and intensity of flavors experienced in breast milk may be unique for each infant and serve to identify the culture to which the child is born. Of interest are recent findings from an intra-cultural study of women living in several regions of Mexico (Mennella, Turnbull, Ziegler, & Martinez, 2005). Despite the differences in cuisine, there were striking similarities in the types of foods fed to infants during weaning and eaten more of by mothers during pregnancy. In a sense, the foods eaten by the mother (e.g., fruits) formed the basis of the child’s weaning patterns. Experimental research has also revealed that the type of exposure needed to enhance later acceptance may not require experience with the actual flavor, however. Experience with flavor variety enhances the acceptance of novel foods during weaning in human infants (Gerrish & Mennella, 2001) and animal models (Capretta, Petersik, & Steward, 1975). Of interest is the finding that breastfed infants were more willing to accept a novel vegetable upon first presentation than are formula-fed infants (Sullivan & Birch, 1994). One explanation for this finding is that, unlike the formula-fed infant who experiences a monotony of flavors in infant formula, the breastfed infant is exposed to a variety of flavors in breast milk, setting the pattern for a diversified diet. The long-term consequences of early milk feeding on the development of aspects of food and flavor preferences have been the subject of a few longitudinal studies in recent years. In an 8-year longitudinal study conducted in the United States, fruit and vegetable consumption by school-aged children was predicted by either breastfeeding duration, food-related experiences during early life, or mothers’ preferences (Skinner, Carruth, Wendy, & Ziegler, 2002). Similar findings have been recently reported in the United Kingdom (Cooke et al., 2004) and France (Nicklaus, Boggio, Chabanet, & Issanchou, 2004). Clearly, more research is needed, but the finding that infants are learning via flavor cues in breast milk suggest one (but not the only) mechanism underlying these associations.

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研讨会总结：了解生命早期食物偏好的发展：关注后续研究

口味偏好早在人们第一次尝到固体食物之前就已经形成。在这里，我们总结了从实验和纵向研究的科学研究中获得的见解。正如将要讨论的，这项研究表明婴儿了解母亲在怀孕和哺乳期间食用的食物类型。这种经历会偏向于接受特定口味，并可能“编程”以后的食物偏好。通过这种方式，这是可能在生命早期就开始特定于文化的食物偏好的第一种方式（但不是唯一方式）。在过去十年中，实验研究表明，人类胎儿生活的环境，羊膜囊，会随着母亲食物选择的变化而变化，因为饮食风味会传递和羊水风味（Mennella、Johnson 和 Beauchamp，1995）。对这些口味的体验会增加出生和断奶期间对这些口味的享受和偏好。例如，暴露于羊水中的大蒜或茴香等饮食传播的味道已被证明会影响新生儿在产后立即对这些气味的面部、嘴巴和定向反应 (Hepper, 1988; Schaal, Marlier, & Soussignan, 2000)。其中一些相同的味道稍后会被婴儿在母乳中体验到，因为母乳由直接反映母亲摄入的食物、香料和饮料的味道组成（Mennella & Beauchamp, 1991; Mennella et al., 1995）。就像在其他哺乳动物中观察到的那样，暴露于某种味道的婴儿（即 与未暴露的对照婴儿相比，羊水或母乳中的胡萝卜）对食物基料中该风味的反应不同（Mennella、Jagnow 和 Beauchamp，2001 年）。具体而言，与普通谷物相比，先前接触过的婴儿在喂食胡萝卜味谷物时表现出的负面面部表情较少。此外，与普通麦片相比，那些在产前接触过胡萝卜的婴儿被母亲认为更喜欢胡萝卜味麦片。产后暴露具有类似的后果，因此强调了孕妇和哺乳期妇女多样化饮食的重要性。羊水和母乳与母亲食用的食物在风味特征方面具有共同点，这表明母乳可能“桥接”了子宫内的风味体验与固体食物中的风味体验。此外，母乳的甜味和质地特性，如粘度和口腔涂层，因母亲而异，因此表明母乳喂养与配方喂养不同，为婴儿提供了丰富的化学感应体验来源。母乳中所体验到的味道的类型和强度对于每个婴儿来说可能是独一无二的，并有助于确定孩子出生的文化。有趣的是最近对生活在墨西哥几个地区的女性进行的文化内研究的发现（Mennella、Turnbull、Ziegler 和 Martinez，2005 年）。尽管菜式不同，在断奶期间喂给婴儿的食物类型和母亲在怀孕期间吃的更多食物类型之间存在惊人的相似性。从某种意义上说，母亲吃的食物（例如水果）构成了孩子断奶模式的基础。然而，实验研究还表明，提高后期接受度所需的暴露类型可能不需要对实际风味的体验。在人类婴儿 (Gerrish & Mennella, 2001) 和动物模型 (Capretta, Petersik, & Steward, 1975) 中，风味多样性的经验增强了断奶期间对新食物的接受度。有趣的是，母乳喂养的婴儿在第一次出现时更愿意接受一种新的蔬菜，而不是配方喂养的婴儿 (Sullivan & Birch, 1994)。对这一发现的一种解释是，与配方奶喂养的婴儿在婴儿配方奶粉中体验单一口味不同，母乳喂养的婴儿接触母乳中的多种口味，为多样化饮食奠定了基础。近年来，早期母乳喂养对食物和风味偏好方面发展的长期影响已成为一些纵向研究的主题。在美国进行的一项为期 8 年的纵向研究中，学龄儿童的水果和蔬菜消费量是通过母乳喂养持续时间、早年与食物相关的经历或母亲的偏好来预测的（Skinner、Carruth、Wendy 和 Ziegler , 2002)。最近在英国（Cooke 等人，2004 年）和法国（Nicklaus、Boggio、Chabanet 和 Issanchou，2004 年）也报告了类似的发现。显然，还需要更多的研究，