Growth in production of manufactured goods and the use of nanomaterials in consumer products has mounted in the past few decades. Nanotoxicology or toxicity assessment of these engineered products is required to understand possible adverse effects and their fate inside the human body. The present review is a one stop assessment intended to be a state of the art understanding on nanotoxicity. It provides a summation of the various kinds of cell death and also discusses the different types of toxicities along with their studies. The review discusses the physiological impact imparted on cells (reactive oxygen species generation and the resultant oxidative stress, inflammation, and other nonoxidant pathways). Moreover, it discusses the different physicochemical properties of nanomaterials (size, morphology, surface charge, and coating) governing the cytotoxicity properties. It also details the major pathways of nanomaterial uptake in cells and their outcome. Additionally, it also discusses the possible methods for human exposure to nanomaterials (skin, respiratory tract, gastrointestinal tract, blood brain barrier, liver, and spleen). Furthermore, an entire new section is contributed in discussion of all possible types of assays (cytotoxicity, cell proliferation, and genotoxicity assays). A summarized discussion of the recent advances on in vitro, in silico, and in vivo studies of nanomaterials (metal, metal oxides, carbon nanotubes, graphene, and other novel materials) is made. The review also provides a brief account of the safety guidelines for handling nanomaterials. Finally, the uses of engineered nanomaterials in commercial products are discussed in detail.

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纳米材料的毒性：暴露，途径，评估和最新进展

在过去的几十年中，制成品的生产增长和消费产品中纳米材料的使用不断增长。需要对这些工程产品进行纳米毒理学或毒性评估，以了解可能的不良作用及其在人体内的命运。本综述是一站式评估，旨在成为对纳米毒性的最新了解。它提供了各种细胞死亡的总结，还讨论了不同类型的毒性及其研究。这篇综述讨论了对细胞的生理影响（活性氧的产生以及由此产生的氧化应激，炎症和其他非氧化途径）。此外，它还讨论了纳米材料的不同物理化学特性（尺寸，形态，表面电荷，和涂层）控制细胞毒性。它还详细介绍了细胞中纳米材料吸收的主要途径及其结果。此外，它还讨论了人类暴露于纳米材料（皮肤，呼吸道，胃肠道，血脑屏障，肝脏和脾脏）的可能方法。此外，在所有可能类型的测定（细胞毒性，细胞增殖和基因毒性测定）的讨论中，将有一个全新的章节。对纳米材料（金属，金属氧化物，碳纳米管，石墨烯和其他新型材料）的体外，计算机化和体内研究的最新进展进行了总结性讨论。审查还简要介绍了处理纳米材料的安全准则。最后，详细讨论了工程纳米材料在商业产品中的用途。