Spatial planning has to deal with trade-offs between various stakeholders’ wishes and needs as part of planning and management of landscapes, natural resources and/or biodiversity. To make ecosystem services (ES) trade-off research more relevant for spatial planning, we propose an analytical framework, which puts stakeholders, their land-use/management choices, their impact on ES and responses at the centre. Based on 24 cases from around the world, we used this framing to analyse the appearance and diversity of real-world ES trade-offs. They cover a wide range of trade-offs related to ecosystem use, including: land-use change, management regimes, technical versus nature-based solutions, natural resource use, and management of species. The ES trade-offs studied featured a complexity that was far greater than what is often described in the ES literature. Influential users and context setters are at the core of the trade-off decision-making, but most of the impact is felt by non-influential users. Provisioning and cultural ES were the most targeted in the studied trade-offs, but regulating ES were the most impacted. Stakeholders’ characteristics, such as influence, impact faced, and concerns can partially explain their position and response in relation to trade-offs. Based on the research findings, we formulate recommendations for spatial planning.

空间规划必须处理各种利益相关者的愿望和需求之间的权衡，这是景观，自然资源和/或生物多样性的规划和管理的一部分。为了使生态系统服务（ES）的权衡研究与空间规划更加相关，我们提出了一个分析框架，该框架将利益相关者，他们的土地使用/管理选择，其对ES的影响和应对措施置于中心位置。基于来自世界各地的24个案例，我们使用此框架来分析现实世界中ES权衡的外观和多样性。它们涵盖了与生态系统使用相关的广泛权衡，包括：土地使用变化，管理制度，基于技术的解决方案与基于自然的解决方案，自然资源的使用以及物种的管理。在ES权衡中所研究的复杂性远大于ES文献中经常描述的复杂性。有影响力的用户和环境设置者是权衡决策的核心，但是大多数影响是由非有影响力的用户感受到的。在所研究的权衡中，供应和文化ES是最有针对性的，而对ES的监管则受到的影响最大。利益相关者的特征（例如影响，面临的影响和关注）可以部分解释其在权衡方面的立场和反应。基于研究结果，我们为空间规划提出了建议。但对ES的监管影响最大。利益相关者的特征（例如影响，面临的影响和关注）可以部分解释其在权衡方面的立场和反应。基于研究结果，我们为空间规划提出了建议。但对ES的监管影响最大。利益相关者的特征（例如影响，面临的影响和关注）可以部分解释其在权衡方面的立场和反应。基于研究结果，我们为空间规划提出了建议。