Adult cardiomyocytes (CMs) possess a highly restricted intrinsic regenerative potential — a major barrier to the effective treatment of a range of chronic degenerative cardiac disorders characterized by cellular loss and/or irreversible dysfunction and which underlies the majority of deaths in developed countries. Both stem cell programming and direct cell reprogramming hold promise as novel, potentially curative approaches to address this therapeutic challenge. The advent of induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) has introduced a second pluripotent stem cell source besides embryonic stem cells (ESCs), enabling even autologous cardiomyocyte production. In addition, the recent achievement of directly reprogramming somatic cells into cardiomyocytes is likely to become of great importance. In either case, different clinical scenarios will require the generation of highly pure, specific cardiac cellular-subtypes. In this review, we discuss these themes as related to the cardiovascular stem cell and programming field, including a focus on the emergent topic of pacemaker cell generation for the development of biological pacemakers and in vitro drug testing.

成人心肌细胞（CM）具有高度受限的内在再生潜能-这是有效治疗一系列以细胞丢失和/或不可逆功能障碍为特征的慢性退行性心脏病的主要障碍，而这是发达国家大多数死亡的基础。干细胞编程和直接细胞重编程都有望作为解决这一治疗挑战的新颖，可能治愈的方法。诱导多能干细胞（iPSC）的出现引入了除胚胎干细胞（ESC）之外的第二种多能干细胞来源，甚至可以自体产生心肌细胞。另外，最近取得的将体细胞直接重编程为心肌细胞的最新成就可能变得非常重要。在任一情况下，不同的临床情况将需要生成高纯度的特定心脏细胞亚型。在这篇综述中，我们讨论了与心血管干细胞和程序设计领域相关的这些主题，其中包括对起搏器细胞生成的新兴主题的关注，这些主题将用于生物起搏器的开发和开发。体外药物测试。