This study examined the co-occurrence of word reading difficulty in Chinese (L1) and English as a second language (L2) and tested language and executive functioning (EF) skills as correlates. Thirty-nine poor readers in Chinese (PC), 39 poor readers in English (PE), and 26 poor readers of both languages (PB) were compared to 39 average readers who served as controls (C). The co-occurrence rate of L1–L2 difficulty was 40%. Moreover, PC, PE, and PB performed less well than C on all language and EF skills; PB performed less well than PC, PE, and C on L1 and L2 phonological awareness, L2 morphological awareness, rapid naming, and EF. Findings highlight the role of language and EF skills in L1 and L2 reading development.

中文翻译：

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什么预示着第一语言和第二语言的困难？测试语言和执行功能技能的相关性

本研究考察了汉语 (L1) 和英语作为第二语言 (L2) 单词阅读困难的共现情况，并测试了语言和执行功能 (EF) 技能的相关性。将 39 名中文 (PC) 差读者、39 名英语 (PE) 差读者和 26 名双语差读者 (PB) 与 39 名普通读者作为对照 (C) 进行比较。L1-L2 难度的共现率为 40%。此外，PC、PE 和 PB 在所有语言和 EF 技能上的表现不如 C；PB 在 L1 和 L2 语音意识、L2 形态意识、快速命名和 EF 方面的表现不如 PC、PE 和 C。研究结果强调了语言和 EF 技能在 L1 和 L2 阅读发展中的作用。