Abstract
Dynamic-mechanical analysis (DMA) was performed to investigate the viscoelastic response of multifunctional laminates for thermal energy storage (TES). The laminates were constituted by a microencapsulated paraffinic phase change material (PCM), a carbon fiber fabric, and an innovative reactive acrylic resin (Elium®). In the Elium®/PCM systems, the PCM fraction affected neither the glass transition temperature (\(T _{\mathrm{g}}\)) of the resin, found at 100–120 ∘C, nor the activation energy of the glass transition, determined with multifrequency scans from the position of the \(\tan\delta \) peaks. On the other hand, the low-temperature (0–40 ∘C) transition detected on the neat resin was hidden by the PCM melting, evidenced by a step in \(E'\) and peaks in \(E''\) and \(\tan \delta \). In the laminates, the amplitude of the \(E'\) step and the intensity of the \(\tan \delta \) peak associated to the PCM melting presented a linear correlation with the PCM content and the melting enthalpy. Cyclic heating/cooling DMA tests showed that the decrease in \(E'\) due to PCM melting was almost completely recovered (90–95%) upon crystallization. The difference between the \(\tan \delta \) peak positions on heating and on cooling decreased from 30 to 12 ∘C when the heating/cooling rate changes from 3 to 1 ∘C/min. Multifrequency tests highlighted that the activation energy of the glass transition of the laminates was lower than that of the matrices, and it did not follow a trend with the PCM fraction. Interestingly, also the \(E''\) and \(\tan \delta \) peaks related to PCM melting depended on the testing frequency, and their asymmetric shape could be interpreted by considering a progressive melting of the PCM in the microcapsules during heating.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Abhat, A.: Low temperature latent heat thermal energy storage: heat storage materials. Sol. Energy 30(4), 313–332 (1983)
Bagotia, N., Sharma, D.K.: Systematic study of dynamic mechanical and thermal properties of multiwalled carbon nanotube reinforced polycarbonate/ethylene methyl acrylate nanocomposites. Polym. Test. 73, 425–432 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.polymertesting.2018.12.006
Bayés-García, L., Ventolà, L., Cordobilla, R., Benages, R., Calvet, T., Cuevas-Diarte, M.A.: Phase change materials (PCM) microcapsules with different shell compositions: preparation, characterization and thermal stability. Sol. Energy Mater. Sol. Cells 94(7), 1235–1240 (2010). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solmat.2010.03.014
Bhudolia, S.K., Perrotey, P., Joshi, S.C.: Enhanced vibration damping and dynamic mechanical characteristics of composites with novel pseudo-thermoset matrix system. Compos. Struct. 179, 502–513 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compstruct.2017.07.093
Cao, L., Tang, F., Fang, G.: Synthesis and characterization of microencapsulated paraffin with titanium dioxide shell as shape-stabilized thermal energy storage materials in buildings. Energy Build. 72, 31–37 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2013.12.028
Chartoff, R.P., Menczel, J.D., Dillman, S.H.: Dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA). In: Menczel, J.D., Prime, R.B. (eds.) Thermal Analysis of Polymers. Fundamentals and Applications. Wiley, Hoboken (2009), Chap. 5
Chee, S.S., Jawaid, M., Sultan, M.T.H., Alothman, O.Y., Abdullah, L.C.: Thermomechanical and dynamic mechanical properties of bamboo/woven kenaf mat reinforced epoxy hybrid composites. Composites Part B. Engineering 163, 165–174 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesb.2018.11.039
Chen, Z., Cao, L., Shan, F., Fang, G.: Preparation and characteristics of microencapsulated stearic acid as composite thermal energy storage material in buildings. Energy Build. 62, 469–474 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2013.03.025
Clarke, R.L., Braden, M.: Modified Arrhenius equation for the frequency dependence of the transition temperatures of polymers. Biomaterials 10, 349–352 (1989)
Devi, L.U., Bhagawan, S.S., Thomas, S.: Dynamic mechanical analysis of pineapple leaf/glass hybrid fiber reinforced polyester composites. In: Polymer Composites, NA-NA (2009). https://doi.org/10.1002/pc.20880
Dirand, M., Bouroukba, M., Chevallier, V., Petitjean, D.: Normal alkanes, multialkane synthetic model mixtures, and real petroleum waxes: crystallographic structures, thermodynamic properties, and crystallization. J. Chem. Eng. Data 47, 115–143 (2002). https://doi.org/10.1021/je0100084
Dorigato, A., Canclini, P., Unterberger, S.H., Pegoretti, A.: Phase changing nanocomposites for low temperature thermal energy storage and release. eXPRESS Polym. Lett. 11(9), 738–752 (2017a). https://doi.org/10.3144/expresspolymlett.2017.71
Dorigato, A., Ciampolillo, M.V., Cataldi, A., Bersani, M., Pegoretti, A.: Polyethylene wax/EPDM blends as shape-stabilized phase change materials for thermal energy storage. Rubber Chem. Technol. 90(3), 575–584 (2017b). https://doi.org/10.5254/rct.82.83719
Dorigato, A., Fredi, G., Pegoretti, A.: Novel phase change materials using thermoplastic composites. In: 9th International Conference on “Times of Polymers and Composites”. AIP Conference Proceedings, vol. 1981, pp. 020044/020041–020044/020044 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1063/1.5045906
Dorigato, A., Fredi, G., Pegoretti, A.: Application of the thermal energy storage concept to novel epoxy/short carbon fiber composites. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 136(21), 47434/47431–47434/47439 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1002/app.47434
Fambri, L., Kesenci, K., Migliaresi, C.: Characterization of modulus and glass transition phenomena in poly(L-lactide)/hydroxyapatite composites. Polym. Compos. 24(1), 100–108 (2003)
Fang, X., Fan, L.W., Ding, Q., Yao, X.L., Wu, Y.Y., Hou, J.F., Wang, X., Yu, Z.T., Cheng, G.H., Hu, Y.C.: Thermal energy storage performance of paraffin-based composite phase change materials filled with hexagonal boron nitride nanosheets. Energy Convers. Manag. 80, 103–109 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2014.01.016
Flores, R., Perez, J., Cassagnau, P., Michel, A., Cavaille, J.Y.: Dynamic mechanical behavior of poly(vinyl chloride)/poly(methyl methacrylate) polymer blend. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 60, 1439–1453 (1996)
Fredi, G., Dorigato, A., Fambri, L., Pegoretti, A.: Wax confinement with carbon nanotubes for phase changing epoxy blends. Polymers 9(9), 405/401–405/416 (2017). https://doi.org/10.3390/polym9090405
Fredi, G., Dorigato, A., Fambri, L., Pegoretti, A.: Multifunctional epoxy/carbon fiber laminates for thermal energy storage and release. Compos. Sci. Technol. 158, 101–111 (2018a). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compscitech.2018.02.005
Fredi, G., Dorigato, A., Pegoretti, A.: Multifunctional glass fiber/polyamide composites with thermal energy storage/release capability. eXPRESS Polym. Lett. 12, 349–364 (2018b). https://doi.org/10.3144/expresspolymlett.2018.30
Fredi, G., Dorigato, A., Pegoretti, A.: Novel reactive thermoplastic resin as a matrix for laminates containing phase change microcapsules. Polym. Compos. 40(9), 3711–3724 (2019a). https://doi.org/10.1002/pc.25233
Fredi, G., Dorigato, A., Unterberger, S., Artuso, N., Pegoretti, A.: Discontinuous carbon fiber/polyamide composites with microencapsulated paraffin for thermal energy storage. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 136(16), 47408/47401–47408/47414 (2019b). https://doi.org/10.1002/app.47408
Gamon, G., Evon, P., Rigal, L.: Twin-screw extrusion impact on natural fibre morphology and material properties in poly(lactic acid) based biocomposites. Ind. Crop. Prod. 46, 173–185 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2013.01.026
Goertzen, W.K., Kessler, M.R.: Dynamic mechanical analysis of carbon/epoxy composites for structural pipeline repair. Composites Part B. Engineering 38(1), 1–9 (2007). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesb.2006.06.002
Hu, J., Zhang, X., Qu, J., Wen, Y., Sun, W.: Synthesis, characterizations and mechanical properties of microcapsules with dual shell of polyurethane (PU)-melamine formaldehyde (MF): effect of different chain extenders. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. (2018). https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.iecr.7b04973
Jaguemont, J., Omar, N., Van den Bossche, P., Mierlo, J.: Phase-change materials (PCM) for automotive applications: a review. Appl. Therm. Eng. 132, 308–320 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2017.12.097
Jeong, S.-G., Kim, S., Huh, W.: Preparation of epoxy resin using n-hexadecane based shape stabilized PCM for applying wood-based flooring. J. Adhes. Sci. Technol. 28(7), 711–721 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1080/01694243.2013.865331
Kahwaji, S., Johnson, M.B., Kheirabadi, A.C., Groulx, D., White, M.A.: A comprehensive study of properties of paraffin phase change materials for solar thermal energy storage and thermal management applications. Energy 162, 1169–1182 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2018.08.068
Karbhari, V.M., Wang, Q.: Multi-frequency dynamic mechanical thermal analysis of moisture uptake in E-glass/vinylester composites. Composites Part B. Engineering 35(4), 299–304 (2004). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesb.2004.01.003
Keller, M.W., Jellison, B.D., Ellison, T.: Moisture effects on the thermal and creep performance of carbon fiber/epoxy composites for structural pipeline repair. Composites Part B. Engineering 45(1), 1173–1180 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesb.2012.07.046
Kenisarin, M., Mahkamov, K.: Solar energy storage using phase change materials. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 11(9), 1913–1965 (2007). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2006.05.005
Kenisarin, M.M., Kenisarina, K.M.: Form-stable phase change materials for thermal energy storage. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 16(4), 1999–2040 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2012.01.015
Krupa, I., Miková, G., Luyt, A.S.: Polypropylene as a potential matrix for the creation of shape stabilized phase change materials. Eur. Polym. J. 43(3), 895–907 (2007). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eurpolymj.2006.12.019
Krupa, I., Nógellová, Z., Špitalský, Z., Janigová, I., Boh, B., Sumiga, B., Kleinová, A., Karkri, M., AlMaadeed, M.A.: Phase change materials based on high-density polyethylene filled with microencapsulated paraffin wax. Energy Convers. Manag. 87, 400–409 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2014.06.061
Li, G., Lee-Sullivan, P., Thring, R.W.: Determination of activation energy for glass transition of an epoxy adhesive using dynamic mechanical analysis. J. Therm. Anal. Calorim. 60, 377–390 (2000)
Lian, Q., Li, K., Sayyed, A.A.S., Cheng, J., Zhang, J.: Study on a reliable epoxy-based phase change material: facile preparation, tunable properties, and phase/microphase separation behavior. Mater. Chem. A 5, 14562–14574 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1039/C7TA02816D
Liu, X., Lou, Y.: Preparation of microencapsulated phase change materials by the sol-gel process and its application on textiles. Fibres Text. East. Eur. 23(2), 63–67 (2015)
Luyt, A.S., Krupa, I.: Phase change materials formed by UV curable epoxy matrix and Fischer-Tropsch paraffin wax. Energy Convers. Manag. 50(1), 57–61 (2009). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2008.08.026
Lv, Y., Li, A., Zhou, F., Pan, X., Liang, F., Qu, X., Qiu, D., Yang, Z.: A novel composite PMMA-based bone cement with reduced potential for thermal necrosis. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 7(21), 11280–11285 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.5b01447
Menard, K.P.: Dynamic testing and instrumentation. In: Menard, K.P. (ed.) Dynamic Mechanical Analysis. A Practical Introduction. CRC Press, Boca Raton (2008), Chap. 5
Mngomezulu, M.E., Luyt, A.S., Krupa, I.: Structure and properties of phase change materials based on HDPE, soft Fischer–Tropsch paraffin wax, and wood flour. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 118(3), 1541–1551 (2010). https://doi.org/10.1002/app.32521
Mochane, M.J., Luyt, A.S.: Preparation and properties of polystyrene encapsulated paraffin wax as possible phase change material in a polypropylene matrix. Thermochim. Acta 544(Suppl. C), 63–70 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tca.2012.06.017
Peng, H., Zhang, D., Ling, X., Li, Y., Wang, Y., Yu, Q., She, X., Li, Y., Ding, Y.: n-Alkanes phase change materials and their microencapsulation for thermal energy storage: a critical review. Energy Fuels 32(7), 7262–7293 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.energyfuels.8b01347
Pereira da Cunha, J., Eames, P.: Thermal energy storage for low and medium temperature applications using phase change materials—a review. Appl. Energy 177, 227–238 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2016.05.097
Pielichowska, K., Pielichowski, K.: Phase change materials for thermal energy storage. Prog. Mater. Sci. 65, 67–123 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pmatsci.2014.03.005
Popelka, A., Sobolčiak, P., Mrlík, M., Nogellova, Z., Chodák, I., Ouederni, M., Al-Maadeed, M.A., Krupa, I.: Foamy phase change materials based on linear low-density polyethylene and paraffin wax blends. Emerg. Mater. 1(1–2), 47–54 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/s42247-018-0003-3
Rigotti, D., Dorigato, A., Pegoretti, A.: 3D printable thermoplastic polyurethane blends with thermal energy storage/release capabilities. Mater. Today Commun. 15, 228–235 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mtcomm.2018.03.009
Sarier, N., Onder, E.: Thermal characteristics of polyurethane foams incorporated with phase change materials. Thermochim. Acta 454(2), 90–98 (2007). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tca.2006.12.024
Sharma, R.K., Ganesan, P., Tyagi, V.V., Metselaar, H.S.C., Sandaran, S.C.: Developments in organic solid–liquid phase change materials and their applications in thermal energy storage. Energy Convers. Manag. 95, 193–228 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2015.01.084
Shin, J.H., Kim, D., Centea, T., Nutt, S.R.: Thermoplastic prepreg with partially polymerized matrix: material and process development for efficient part manufacturing. Composites, Part A, Appl. Sci. Manuf. 119, 154–164 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesa.2019.01.009
Sobolciak, P., Karkri, M., Al-Maaded, M.A., Krupa, I.: Thermal characterization of phase change materials based on linear low-density polyethylene, paraffin wax and expanded graphite. Renew. Energy 88, 372–382 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2015.11.056
Sobolciak, P., Mrlík, M., AlMaadeed, M.A., Krupa, I.: Calorimetric and dynamic mechanical behavior of phase change materials based on paraffin wax supported by expanded graphite. Thermochim. Acta 617, 111–119 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tca.2015.08.026
Su, J.-F., Wang, X.-Y., Wang, S.-B., Zhao, Y.-H., Zhu, K.-Y., Yuan, X.-Y.: Interface stability behaviors of methanol-melamine-formaldehyde shell microPCMs/epoxy matrix composites. Polym. Compos. 32(5), 810–820 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1002/pc.21102
Su, J.F., Zhao, Y.H., Wang, X.Y., Dong, H., Wang, S.B.: Effect of interface debonding on the thermal conductivity of microencapsulated-paraffin filled epoxy matrix composites. Composites, Part A, Appl. Sci. Manuf. 43(3), 325–332 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesa.2011.12.003
Sun, Y., Zhang, Z., Moon, K.-S., Wong, C.P.: Glass transition and relaxation behavior of epoxy nanocomposites. J. Polym. Sci., Part B, Polym. Phys. 42(21), 3849–3858 (2004). https://doi.org/10.1002/polb.20251
Sundararajan, S., Kumar, A., Chakraborty, B.C., Samui, A.B., Kulkarni, P.S.: Poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG)-modified epoxy phase-change polymer with dual properties of thermal storage and vibration damping. Sustain. Energy Fuels 2(3), 688–697 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1039/c7se00552k
Vélez, C., Khayet, M., Ortiz de Zárate, J.M.: Temperature-dependent thermal properties of solid/liquid phase change even-numbered n-alkanes: n-hexadecane, n-octadecane and n-eicosane. Appl. Energy 143, 383–394 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2015.01.054
Wang, F., Lin, W., Ling, Z., Fang, X.: A comprehensive review on phase change material emulsions: fabrication, characteristics, and heat transfer performance. Sol. Energy Mater. Sol. Cells 191, 218–234 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solmat.2018.11.016
Wang, S., Tozaki, K-i., Hayashi, H., Hosaka, S., Inaba, H.: Observation of multiple phase transitions in n-C22H46 using a high resolution and super-sensitive DSC. Thermochim. Acta 408(1–2), 31–38 (2003). https://doi.org/10.1016/s0040-6031(03)00312-5
Wang, X.-Y., Su, J.-F., Wang, S.-B., Zhao, Y.-H.: The effect of interface debonding behaviors on the mechanical properties of microPCMs/epoxy composites. Polym. Compos. 32(9), 1439–1450 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1002/pc.21174
Wirtz, R., Fuchs, A., Narla, V., Shen, Y., Zhao, T., Jiang, Y.: In: A Multi-Functional Graphite/Epoxy-Based Thermal Energy Storage Composite for Temperature Control of Sensors and Electronics, University of Nevada, Reno, Reno, Nevada, 89557 USA, 2003, 2003, pp. 1–9
Yoo, S., Kandare, E., Mahendrarajah, G., Al-Maadeed, M.A., Khatibi, A.A.: Mechanical and thermal characterisation of multifunctional composites incorporating phase change materials. J. Compos. Mater. 51(18), 2631–2642 (2017a). https://doi.org/10.1177/0021998316673894
Yoo, S., Kandare, E., Shanks, R., Al-Maadeed, M.A., Afaghi Khatibi, A.: Thermophysical properties of multifunctional glass fibre reinforced polymer composites incorporating phase change materials. Thermochim. Acta 642, 25–31 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tca.2016.09.003
Yoo, S., Kandare, E., Shanks, R., Khatibi, A.A.: Viscoelastic Characterization of Multifunctional Composites Incorporated with Microencapsulated Phase Change Materials. International Conference of Materials Processing and Characterization (ICPMC). Elsevier, Amsterdam (2017b)
Yung, K., Zhu, B., Yue, T., Xie, C.: Preparation and properties of hollow glass microsphere-filled epoxy-matrix composites. Compos. Sci. Technol. 69(2), 260–264 (2009). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compscitech.2008.10.014
Zalba, B., Marin, J.M., Cabeza, L.F., Mehling, H.: Review on thermal energy storage with phase change: materials, heat transfer analysis and applications. Appl. Therm. Eng. 23, 251–283 (2003). https://doi.org/10.1016/S1359-4311(02)00192-8
Zhang, H., Baeyens, J., Cáceres, G., Degrève, J., Lv, Y.: Thermal energy storage: recent developments and practical aspects. Prog. Energy Combust. Sci. 53, 1–40 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pecs.2015.10.003
Zhang, P., Hu, Y., Song, L., Ni, J., Xing, W., Wang, J.: Effect of expanded graphite on properties of high-density polyethylene/paraffin composite with intumescent flame retardant as a shape-stabilized phase change material. Sol. Energy Mater. Sol. Cells 94(2), 360–365 (2010). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solmat.2009.10.014
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding authors
Additional information
Publisher’s Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Fredi, G., Dorigato, A. & Pegoretti, A. Dynamic-mechanical response of carbon fiber laminates with a reactive thermoplastic resin containing phase change microcapsules. Mech Time-Depend Mater 24, 395–418 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11043-019-09427-y
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11043-019-09427-y