1932

Abstract

Homelessness represents an enduring public health threat facing communities across the developed world. Children, families, and marginalized adults face life course implications of housing insecurity, while communities struggle to address the extensive array of needs within heterogeneous homeless populations. Trends in homelessness remain stubbornly high despite policy initiatives to end homelessness. A complex systems perspective provides insights into the dynamics underlying coordinated responses to homelessness. A constant demand for housing assistance strains service delivery, while prevention efforts remain inconsistently implemented in most countries. Feedback processes challenge efficient service delivery. A system dynamics model tests assumptions of policy interventions for ending homelessness. Simulations suggest that prevention provides a leverage point within the system; small efficiencies in keeping people housed yield disproportionately large reductions in homelessness. A need exists for policies that ensure reliable delivery of coordinated prevention efforts. A complex systems approach identifies capacities and constraints for sustainably solving homelessness.

Loading

Article metrics loading...

/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-publhealth-040617-013553
2019-04-01
2024-03-28
Loading full text...

Full text loading...

/deliver/fulltext/publhealth/40/1/annurev-publhealth-040617-013553.html?itemId=/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-publhealth-040617-013553&mimeType=html&fmt=ahah

Literature Cited

  1. 1. 
    Anderson C 2006. The Long Tail: Why the Future of Business Is Selling Less of More New York: Hachette Books
  2. 2. 
    Aubry T, Nelson G, Tsemberis S 2015. Housing First for people with severe mental illness who are homeless: a review of the research and findings from the At Home-Chez Soi demonstration project. Can. J. Psychiatry 60:11467–74
    [Google Scholar]
  3. 3. 
    Aust. Bur. Stat. 2018. Census of population and housing: estimating homelessness, 2016 Rep., Aust. Bur. Stat Canberra: Aust. http://www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/[email protected]/DetailsPage/2049.02016?OpenDocument
  4. 4. 
    Aust. Gov. Product. Comm. 2017. Report on government services 2017: housing and homelessness Rep., Aust. Gov. Product. Comm Melbourne/Canberra: Aust. https://www.pc.gov.au/research/ongoing/report-on-government-services/2017/housing-and-homelessness
  5. 5. 
    Azizi MJ, Vayanos P, Wilder B, Rice E, Tambe M 2018. Designing fair, efficient, and interpretable policies for prioritizing homeless youth for housing resources. Integration of Constraint Programming, Artificial Intelligence, and Operations Research W-J van Hoeve 35–51 Cham, Switz: Springer
    [Google Scholar]
  6. 6. 
    Brown M, Cummings C, Lyons J, Carrion A, Watson DP 2018. Reliability and validity of the Vulnerability Index-Service Prioritization Decision Assistance Tool (VI-SPDAT) in real-world implementation. J. Soc. Distress Homeless 27:2110–17
    [Google Scholar]
  7. 7. 
    Brown M, Vaclavik D, Watson DP, Wilka E 2017. Predictors of homeless services re-entry within a sample of adults receiving Homelessness Prevention and Rapid Re-Housing Program (HPRP) assistance. Psychol. Serv. 14:2129–40
    [Google Scholar]
  8. 8. 
    Bunge M 1979. Causality and Modern Science New York: Dover, 3rd revis. ed..
  9. 9. 
    Burt MR 2012. Impact of housing and work supports on outcomes for chronically homeless adults with mental illness: LA's HOPE. Psychiatr. Serv. 63:3209–15
    [Google Scholar]
  10. 10. 
    Burt MR, Spellman BE 2007. Changing homeless and mainstream service systems: essential approaches to ending homelessness Paper prepared for Toward Understanding Homelessness: The 2007 National Symposium on Homelessness Research Washington, DC: March 1–2. https://www.huduser.gov/portal//publications/pdf/p2.pdf
  11. 11. 
    Busch-Geertsma V, Edgar W, O'Sullivan E, Pleace N 2010. Homelessness and homeless policies in Europe: lessons from research Report prepared for the European Consensus Conference Brussels: Dec 9–10 https://pure.york.ac.uk/portal/en/publications/homelessness-and-homeless-policies-in-europe(cf9131be-ac84-4c61-9544-009926940d23)/export.html
  12. 12. 
    Busch-Geertsma V, Fitzpatrick S 2008. Effective homelessness prevention? Explaining reductions in homelessness in Germany and England. Eur. J. Homelessness 2:69–95
    [Google Scholar]
  13. 13. 
    Byrne TH, Fargo JD, Montgomery AE, Roberts CB, Culhane DP, Kane V 2015. Screening for homelessness in the Veterans Health Administration: monitoring housing stability through repeat screening. Public Health Rep 130:6684–92
    [Google Scholar]
  14. 14. 
    Byrne TH, Treglia D, Culhane DP, Kuhn J, Kane V 2016. Predictors of homelessness among families and single adults after exit from homelessness prevention and rapid re-housing programs: evidence from the Department of Veterans Affairs Supportive Services for Veteran Families Program. Hous. Policy Debate 26:1251–74
    [Google Scholar]
  15. 15. 
    Chan H, Rice E, Vayanos P, Tambe M, Morton M 2017. Evidence from the past: AI decision aids to improve housing systems for homeless youth AAAI Tech. Rep. FS-17-02, Assoc. Adv. Artif. Intell. (AAAI) Menlo Park, CA: http://teamcore.usc.edu/papers/2017/current_housing.pdf
  16. 16. 
    Clark C, Rich AR 2003. Outcomes of homeless adults with mental illness in a housing program and in case management only. Psychiatr. Serv. 54:178–83
    [Google Scholar]
  17. 17. 
    Colburn G 2014. The federal commitment to homelessness prevention: a silver lining of the economic crisis. Poverty Public Policy 6:133–45
    [Google Scholar]
  18. 18. 
    Culhane DP, Metraux S, Park JM, Schretzman M, Valente J 2007. Testing a typology of family homelessness based on patterns of public shelter utilization in four U.S. jurisdictions: implications for policy and program planning. Hous. Policy Debate 18:159–67
    [Google Scholar]
  19. 19. 
    Culhane DP, Park JM, Metraux S 2011. The patterns and costs of service use among homeless families. J. Community Psychol. 39:7815–25
    [Google Scholar]
  20. 20. 
    Curry SR, Morton M, Matjasko JL, Dworsky A, Samuels GM, Schlueter D 2017. Youth homelessness and vulnerability: How does couch surfing fit?. Am. J. Community Psychol. 60:1–217–24
    [Google Scholar]
  21. 21. 
    Dawson A, Jackson D, Cleary M 2013. Mothering on the margins: homeless women with an SUD and complex mental health co-morbidities. Issues Ment. Health Nurs. 34:4288–93
    [Google Scholar]
  22. 22. 
    De Jong I 2015. VI-SPDAT and rapid rehousing recommendations. OrgCode Blog Feb. 17. http://www.orgcode.com/vi_spdat_and_rapid_re_housing_recommendations
  23. 23. 
    Desmond M 2015. Unaffordable America: poverty, housing, and eviction Fast Focus Brief 22-2015, Inst. Res. Poverty Madison, Wis.:
  24. 24. 
    Diez Roux AV 2011. Complex systems thinking and current impasses in health disparities research. Am. J. Public Health 101:91627–34
    [Google Scholar]
  25. 25. 
    Edgar B 2009. European review of statistics on homelessness Rep., Eur. Fed. Natl. Organ. Work. Homeless Brussels: https://www.feantsaresearch.org/download/6-20098376003316223505933.pdf
  26. 26. 
    Fantuzzo J, LeBoeuf W, Brumley B, Perlman S 2013. A population-based inquiry of homeless episode characteristics and early educational well-being. Child Youth Serv. Rev. 35:6966–72
    [Google Scholar]
  27. 27. 
    Fargo JD, Munley EA, Byrne TH, Montgomery AE, Culhane DP 2013. Community-level characteristics associated with variation in rates of homelessness among families and single adults. Am. J. Public Health 103:Suppl. 2S340–47
    [Google Scholar]
  28. 28. 
    Farrell AF, Dibble KE, Randall KG, Britner P 2017. Screening for housing instability and homelessness among families undergoing child maltreatment investigation. Am. J. Community Psychol. 60:1–225–32
    [Google Scholar]
  29. 29. 
    Fitzpatrick S, Pleace N 2012. The statutory homelessness system in England: a fair and effective rights-based model?. Hous. Stud. 27:2232–51
    [Google Scholar]
  30. 30. 
    Flatau P, Zaretzky K, Wood L, Miscenko D 2016. The financing, delivery and effectiveness of programs to reduce homelessness AHURI Final Rep. 270, Aust. Hous. Urban Res. Inst. (AHURI) Melbourne: Aust. https://www.ahuri.edu.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0018/9900/AHURI_Final_Report_No270_The-financing,-delivery-and-effectiveness-of-programs-to-reduce-homelessness.pdf
  31. 31. 
    Fowler PJ, Marcal KE, Zhang J, Day O, Landsverk J 2017. Homelessness and aging out of foster care: a national comparison of child welfare-involved adolescents. Child. Youth Serv. Rev. 77:27–33
    [Google Scholar]
  32. 32. 
    Fowler PJ, Schoeny M 2017. Permanent housing for child welfare-involved families: impact on child maltreatment. Am. J. Community Psychol. 60:91–102
    [Google Scholar]
  33. 33. 
    Fowler PJ, Toro PA, Miles BW 2009. Pathways to and from homelessness and associated psychosocial outcomes among adolescents leaving the foster care system. Am. J. Public Health 99:81453–58
    [Google Scholar]
  34. 34. 
    Fowler PJ, Toro PA, Miles BW 2011. Emerging adulthood and leaving foster care: settings associated with mental health. Am. J. Community Psychol. 47:3–4335–48
    [Google Scholar]
  35. 35. 
    Fowler PJ, Wright K, Marcal KE, Ballard E, Hovmand PS 2018. Capability traps impeding homeless services: a community based system dynamics evaluation. J. Soc. Serv. Res. https://doi.org/10.1080/01488376.2018.1480560
    [Crossref]
  36. 36. 
    Fuehrlein BS, Cowell AJ, Pollio DE, Cupps LY, Balfour ME et al. 2014. Deriving costs of service use among an urban homeless population. J. Subst. Abus. Treat. 46:4491–97
    [Google Scholar]
  37. 37. 
    Gaetz S, Dej E, Richter T, Redman M 2016. The state of homelessness in Canada 2016 Can. Observ. Homelessness (COH) Res. Pap. 12, Toronto
  38. 38. 
    Gao Y, Das S, Fowler PJ 2017. Homelessness service provision: a data science perspective AAAI Tech. Rep. WS-17-01, Assoc. Adv. Artif. Intell. (AAAI) Menlo Park, CA:
  39. 39. 
    Gilmer TP, Stefancic A, Ettner SL, Manning WG, Tsemberis S 2010. Effect of full-service partnerships on homelessness use and costs of mental health services, and quality of life among adults with serious mental illness. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 67:6645–52
    [Google Scholar]
  40. 40. 
    Gilmer TP, Stefancic A, Katz M, Sklar M, Tsemberis S, Palinkas L 2014. Fidelity to the housing first model and effectiveness of permanent supportive housing programs in California. Psychiatr. Serv. 65:111311–17
    [Google Scholar]
  41. 41. 
    Goldman HH, Morrissey JP, Ridgely MS, Frank RG, Newman SJ, Kennedy C 1992. Lessons from the Program on Chronic Mental Illness. Health Aff 11:51–68
    [Google Scholar]
  42. 42. 
    Gordon R 1983. An operational classification of disease prevention. Public Heath Rep 98:107–9
    [Google Scholar]
  43. 43. 
    Greenberg GA, Rosenheck R 2010. An evaluation of an initiative to improve coordination and service delivery of homeless services networks. J. Behav. Health Serv. Res. 37:2184–96
    [Google Scholar]
  44. 44. 
    Greer AL, Shinn M, Kwon J, Zuiderveen S 2016. Targeting services to individuals most likely to enter shelter: evaluating the efficiency of homelessness prevention. Soc. Serv. Rev. 90:1130–55
    [Google Scholar]
  45. 45. 
    Gubits D, Shinn M, Bell S, Wood M, Dastrup S et al. 2016. Family options study: 3-year impacts of housing and services interventions for homeless families Rep., US Dep. Hous. Urban Dev., Off. Policy Dev. Res Washington, DC: https://www.huduser.gov/portal/sites/default/files/pdf/Family-Options-Study-Full-Report.pdf
  46. 46. 
    Henry M, Watt R, Rosenthal L, Shivji A 2016. The 2016 annual homeless assessment report (AHAR) to Congress Rep., US Dep. Hous. Urban Dev., Off. Community Plann. Dev. Res Washington, DC:
  47. 47. 
    Henry M, Watt R, Rosenthal L, Shivji A 2017. Annual homeless assessment report (AHAR) to Congress, part 1: point-in-time estimates of homelessness Rep., US Dep. Hous. Urban Dev., Off. Community Plann. Dev. Res Washington, DC: https://www.hudexchange.info/resources/documents/2017-AHAR-Part-1.pdf
  48. 48. 
    Holden C 1986. Homelessness: experts differ on root causes. Science 232:4750569–70
    [Google Scholar]
  49. 49. 
    Hovmand PS 2014. Community Based System Dynamics New York: Springer
  50. 50. 
    Jahiel R, Babor T 2007. Toward a typology of homeless families: conceptual and methodological issues. See Ref. 83 1–41
  51. 51. 
    Jones K, Colson PW, Holter MC, Lin S, Valencia E et al. 2003. Cost-effectiveness of critical time intervention to reduce homelessness among persons with mental illness. Psychiatr. Serv. 54:6884–90
    [Google Scholar]
  52. 52. 
    Jt. Cent. Hous. Stud. Harvard Univ. 2017. The state of the nation's housing 2017 Rep., Jt. Cent. Hous. Stud. Harvard Univ Cambridge, MA: http://www.jchs.harvard.edu/sites/default/files/harvard_jchs_state_of_the_nations_housing_2017_0.pdf
  53. 53. 
    Kenna P 2005. Housing rights and human rights Rep., Eur. Fed. Natl. Organ. Work. Homeless Brussels: http://hdl.handle.net/10379/1762
  54. 54. 
    Kertesz SG, Austin EL, Holmes SK, DeRussy AJ, Van Deusen Lukas C, Pollio DE 2017. Housing first on a large scale: fidelity strengths and challenges in the VA's HUD-VASH program. Psychol. Serv. 14:2118–28
    [Google Scholar]
  55. 55. 
    Kertesz SG, Austin EL, Holmes SK, Pollio DE, Schumacher JE et al. 2014. Making housing first happen: organizational leadership in VA's expansion of permanent supportive housing. J. Gen. Intern. Med. 29:Suppl. 4835–44
    [Google Scholar]
  56. 56. 
    Kertesz SG, Austin EL, Holmes SK, Pollio DE, VanDeusen Lukas C 2015. Housing first and the risk of failure: a comment on Westermeyer and Lee 2013. J. Nerv. Ment. Disord. 203:7559–62
    [Google Scholar]
  57. 57. 
    Kreuter MW, Hovmand PS, Pfeiffer DJ, Fairchild M, Rath S et al. 2014. The “Long Tail” and public health: new thinking for addressing health disparities. Am. J. Public Health 104:122271–78
    [Google Scholar]
  58. 58. 
    Kube A, Das S, Fowler PJ2019 Allocating interventions based on counterfactual predictions: a case study on homelessness services. Proceedings of the AAAI Conference on Artificial Intelligence Menlo Park, CA: Assoc. Adv. Artif. Intell. (AAAI) https://www.cse.wustl.edu/∼sanmay/papers/allocating-interventions-homelessness.pdf
    [Google Scholar]
  59. 59. 
    Landry E, Sterman J 2017. The capability trap: prevalence in human systems. 35th International Conference of the System Dynamics Society 2017963–1010 Albany, NY: System Dynamics Society
    [Google Scholar]
  60. 60. 
    Lee BA, Price-Spratlen T, Kanan JW 2003. Determinants of homelessness in metropolitan areas. J. Urban Aff. 25:3335–55
    [Google Scholar]
  61. 61. 
    Lehman AF, Dixon L, Hoch JS, Deforge B, Kernan E, Frank R 1999. Cost-effectiveness of assertive community treatment for homeless persons with severe mental illness. Br. J. Psychiatry 174:4346–52
    [Google Scholar]
  62. 62. 
    Leopold J, Ho H 2015. Evaluation of the 100,000 Homes Campaign: assessing the campaign's effectiveness in housing the chronically and vulnerable homeless Res. Rep., Urban Inst. Washington, DC: https://www.urban.org/sites/default/files/publication/44391/2000148-Evaluation-of-the-100000-Homes-Campaign.pdf
  63. 63. 
    Lukas CV, Holmes SK, Cohen AB, Restuccia J, Cramber IE et al. 2007. Transformational change in health care systems: an organizational model. Health Care Manag. Rev. 32:4309–20
    [Google Scholar]
  64. 64. 
    Luke DA, Stamatkis KA 2012. Systems science methods in public health: dynamics, networks, and agents. Annu. Rev. Public Health 33:357–76
    [Google Scholar]
  65. 65. 
    Luna-Reyes LF, Martinez-Moyano IJ, Pardo TA, Cresswell AM, Andersen DF, Richardson GP 2006. Anatomy of a group model-building intervention: building dynamic theory from case study research. Syst. Dyn. Rev. 22:4291–320
    [Google Scholar]
  66. 66. 
    Mackie P 2014. The Welsh homelessness legislation review: delivering universal access to appropriate assistance?. Contemp. Wales 27:11–20
    [Google Scholar]
  67. 67. 
    Mackie PK 2015. Homelessness prevention and the Welsh legal duty: lessons for international policies. Hous. Stud. 30:140–59
    [Google Scholar]
  68. 68. 
    Mackie PK, Thomas I, Bibbings J 2017. Homelessness prevention: reflecting on a year of pioneering Welsh legislation in practice. Eur. J. Homelessness 11:181–107
    [Google Scholar]
  69. 69. 
    Macnaughton E, Stefancic A, Nelson G, Caplan R, Townley G et al. 2015. Implementing housing first across sites and over time: later fidelity and implementation evaluation of a pan-Canadian multi-site housing first program for homeless people with mental illness. Am. J. Community Psychol. 55:3–4279–91
    [Google Scholar]
  70. 70. 
    Meadows D 1999. Leverage Points: Places to Intervene in a System Hartland, VT: Sustain. Inst.
  71. 71. 
    Miller RL, Shinn M 2005. Learning from communities: overcoming difficulties in dissemination of prevention and promotion efforts. Am. J. Community Psychol. 35:3–4169–83
    [Google Scholar]
  72. 72. 
    Montgomery AE, Fargo JD, Byrne TH, Kane V, Culhane DP 2013. Universal screening for homelessness and risk for homelessness in the Veterans Health Administration. Am. J. Public Health. 103:Suppl. 2210–11
    [Google Scholar]
  73. 73. 
    Morrissey J, Calloway MO, Thakur N, Cocozza J, Steadman HJ et al. 2002. Integration of service systems for homeless persons with serious mental illness through the ACCESS program. Psychiatr. Serv. 53:8949–57
    [Google Scholar]
  74. 74. 
    O'Flaherty B 1995. An economic theory of homelessness and housing. J. Hous. Econ. 4:113–49
    [Google Scholar]
  75. 75. 
    OrgCode. 2015. VI-SPDAT version 2 and Family VI-SPDAT version 2. Community Solutions https://www.community.solutions/sites/default/files/about_the_vi-spdat_2.0.pdf
  76. 76. 
    Padgett DK, Henwood BF, Tsemberis S 2015. Housing First: Ending Homelessness, Transforming Systems, and Changing Lives New York: Oxford Univ. Press
  77. 77. 
    Pavao J, Alvarez J, Baumrind N, Induni M, Kimerling R 2007. Intimate partner violence and housing instability. Am. J. Prev. Med. 32:2143–46
    [Google Scholar]
  78. 78. 
    Pleace N, Baptista I, Benjaminsen L, Busch-Geertsma V 2013. The costs of homelessness in Europe: an assessment of the current evidence base Rep. Eur. Obs. Homelessness (EOH), Comp. Stud. Homelessness Brussels: http://www.housingfirstguide.eu/website/wp-content/uploads/2016/03/feantsa-studies_03_web-Cost-of-Homelessness.pdf
  79. 79. 
    Pleace N, Bretherton J 2012. What do we mean by housing first? Categorising and critically assessing the housing first movement from a European perspective Prepared for Housing: Local Welfare and Local Markets in a Globalised World, Lillihammer, Nor June
  80. 80. 
    Pleace N, Teller N, Quilgars D 2011. Social Housing Allocation and Homelessness Rep. Eur. Obs. Homelessness (EOH), Comp. Stud. Homelessness Brussels: http://housingfirstguide.eu/website/wp-content/uploads/2016/04/feantsa_eoh-studies_v1_12-2011.pdf
  81. 81. 
    Provan KG, Fish A, Sydow J 2007. Interorganizational networks at the network level: a review of the empirical literature on whole networks. J. Manag. 33:3479–516
    [Google Scholar]
  82. 82. 
    Provan KG, Kenis P 2008. Modes of network governance: structure, management, and effectiveness. J. Adm. Res. Theory 18:2229–52
    [Google Scholar]
  83. 83. 
    Rog DJ, Holupka CS, Patton LC 2007. Characteristics and dynamics of homeless families with children Final Rep., Off. Assist. Secr. Plann. Eval., Off. Hum. Serv. Policy, US Dep. Health Hum. Serv Washington, DC: https://aspe.hhs.gov/report/characteristics-and-dynamics-homeless-families-children
  84. 84. 
    Rog DJ, Marshall T, Dougherty RH, George P, Daniels AS et al. 2014. Permanent supportive housing: assessing the evidence. Psychiatr. Serv. 65:287–94
    [Google Scholar]
  85. 85. 
    Rosenheck R, Kasprow W, Frisman L, Liu-Mares W 2003. Cost-effectiveness of supported housing for homeless persons with mental illness. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 60:9940–51
    [Google Scholar]
  86. 86. 
    Rosenheck R, Morrissey J, Lam J, Calloway MO, Johnsen M et al. 1998. Service system integration, access to services, and housing outcomes in a program for homeless persons with severe mental illness. Am. J. Public Health 88:111610–15
    [Google Scholar]
  87. 87. 
    Rosenheck RA, Neale MS 1998. Cost-effectiveness of intensive psychiatric community care for high users of inpatient services. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 55:5459–66
    [Google Scholar]
  88. 88. 
    Rosenheck RA, Resnick SG, Morrissey JP 2003. Closing service system gaps for homeless clients with a dual diagnosis: integrated teams and interagency cooperation. J. Ment. Health Policy 6:277–87
    [Google Scholar]
  89. 89. 
    Rufa AK, Fowler PJ 2018. Housing decisions among homeless families involved in the child welfare system. Hous. Policy Debate 28:2285–98
    [Google Scholar]
  90. 90. 
    Schiff R 2013. Collaborative approaches to addressing homelessness in Canada: Value and challenge in the community advisory board model. Parity 26:942–43
    [Google Scholar]
  91. 91. 
    Segaert A 2017. The National Shelter Study 2005–2014: emergency shelter use in Canada Rep., Homelessness Employ. Soc. Dev. Can Ottawa: http://publications.gc.ca/site/eng/9.834898/publication.html
  92. 92. 
    Serme-Morin C, Coupechoux S, Aldanas M-J, Owen R, Spinnewijn F et al. 2018. Third overview of housing exclusion in Europe Abbé Pierre Found., FEANTSA Brussels: https://www.feantsa.org/download/full-report-en1029873431323901915.pdf
  93. 93. 
    Shiell A, Hawe P, Gold L 2008. Complex interventions or complex systems? Implications for health economic evaluation. BMJ 336:76561281–83
    [Google Scholar]
  94. 94. 
    Shinn M, Baumohl J, Hopper K 2001. The prevention of homelessness revisited. Anal. Soc. Issues Public Policy 1:195–127
    [Google Scholar]
  95. 95. 
    Shinn M, Greer AL, Bainbridge J, Kwon J, Zuiderveen S 2013. Efficient targeting of homelessness prevention services for families. Am. J. Public Health 103:S2S324–30
    [Google Scholar]
  96. 96. 
    Shinn M, Weitzman BC, Stojanovic D, Knickman JR, Jiménez L et al. 1998. Predictors of homelessness among families in New York City: from shelter request to housing stability. Am. J. Public Health 88:111651–57
    [Google Scholar]
  97. 97. 
    Solari C, Shivji A, de Souza T, Watt R, Silverbush M 2017. The 2016 annual homeless assessment report (AHAR) to Congress, part 2: estimates of homelessness in the United States Rep., US Dep. Hous. Urban Dev., Off. Community Plann. Dev. Res Washington, DC: https://www.hudexchange.info/resources/documents/2016-AHAR-Part-2.pdf
  98. 98. 
    Spellman B, Khadduri J, Leopold J, Sokol B 2010. Cost associated with first-time homelessness for families and individuals Rep., US Dep. Hous. Urban Dev., Off. Policy Dev. Res Washington, DC: https://www.huduser.gov/publications/pdf/costs_homeless.pdf
  99. 99. 
    Stergiopoulos V, Hwang SW, Gozdzik A, Nisenbaum R, Latimer E et al. 2015. Effect of scattered-site housing using rent supplements and intensive case management on housing stability among homeless adults with mental illness: a randomized trial. JAMA 313:9905–15
    [Google Scholar]
  100. 100. 
    Sterman JD 2000. Business Dynamics: Systems Thinking and Modeling for a Complex World St. Louis, MO: McGraw Hill
  101. 101. 
    Sterman JD 2006. Learning from evidence in a complex problem. Am. J. Public Health 96:505–14
    [Google Scholar]
  102. 102. 
    Susser E, Valencia E, Conover S, Felix A, Tsai W-Y, Wyatt RJ 1997. Preventing recurrent homelessness among mentally ill men: a “critical time” intervention after discharge from a shelter. Am. J. Public Health 87:2256–62
    [Google Scholar]
  103. 103. 
    Szeintuch S 2017. Homelessness prevention policy: a case study. Soc. Policy Adm. 51:71135–55
    [Google Scholar]
  104. 104. 
    Theodos B, Popkin SJ, Parilla J, Getsinger L 2012. The challenge of targeting services: a typology of public-housing residents. Soc. Serv. Rev. 86:3517–44
    [Google Scholar]
  105. 105. 
    Toro PA 2007. Toward an international understanding of homelessness. J. Soc. Issues 63:3461–81
    [Google Scholar]
  106. 106. 
    Toro PA, Lesperance TM, Braciszewski JM 2011. The heterogeneity of homeless youth in America: examining typologies Rep., Natl. Alliance to End Homelessness, Homelessness Res. Inst Washington, DC: https://b.3cdn.net/naeh/29187fa2fa05e03e4a_ysm6b8861.pdf
  107. 107. 
    Tsemberis S 2010. Housing First: The Pathways Model to End Homelessness for People with Mental Illness and Addiction Center City, MN: Dartmouth PRC/Hazelden
  108. 108. 
    Tsemberis S, Macnaughton E, Whitney H, Aubry T, Ecker J Final report of the Vulnerability Assessment Tool Evaluation: narrative summary of quantitative results and qualitative findings Fin. Rep., Can. Observ. Homelessness (COH) Toronto: http://homelesshub.ca/resource/final-report-vulnerability-assessment-tool-evaluation-narrative-summary-quantitative
  109. 109. 
    UN Gen. Assem. 2015. Adequate housing as a component of the right to an adequate standard of living, and on the right to non-discrimination in this context Spec. Rapp. A/70/150, UN Gen. Assem New York: https://documents-dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/N15/242/95/PDF/N1524295.pdf?OpenElement
  110. 110. 
    UN Stat. Div. 2017. Principles and recommendations for population and housing censuses: revision 3 Rep. ST/ESA/STAT/SER.M/67/Rev.3, Dep. Econ. Soc. Aff., Stat. Div., UN New York: https://unstats.un.org/unsd/demographic-social/Standards-and-Methods/files/Principles_and_Recommendations/Population-and-Housing-Censuses/Series_M67rev3-E.pdf
  111. 111. 
    US Census Bur. 2017. Gross rent as a percentage of household income: renter occupied housing units. American Community Survey 1-year estimates 2007–2017. American FactFinder https://factfinder.census.gov/faces/tableservices/jsf/pages/productview.xhtml?src=bkmk
  112. 112. 
    US Interag. Counc. Homelessness. 2011. Opening doors: federal strategic plan to prevent and end homelessness Rep., US Interag. Counc. Homelessness Washington, DC: https://www.usich.gov/resources/uploads/asset_library/AnnualUpdate2011.pdf
  113. 113. 
    US Interag. Counc. Homelessness. 2015. Opening doors: federal strategic plan to prevent and end homelessness Rep., US Interag. Counc. Homelessness Washington, DC: https://www.usich.gov/resources/uploads/asset_library/USICH_OpeningDoors_Amendment2015_FINAL.pdf
  114. 114. 
    Van Laere I, De Wit M, Klazinga N 2009. Preventing evictions as a potential public health intervention: characteristics and social medical risk factors of households at risk in Amsterdam. Scand. J. Public Health 37:7697–705
    [Google Scholar]
  115. 115. 
    Wandersman A, Duffy J, Flaspohler P, Noonan R, Lubell K et al. 2008. Bridging the gap between prevention research and practice: the interactive systems framework for dissemination and implementation. Am. J. Community Psychol. 41:3–4171–81
    [Google Scholar]
  116. 116. 
    Zaretzky K, Flatau P, Brady M 2008. What is the (net) cost to government of homelessness programs?. Aust. J. Soc. Issues 43:2231–54
    [Google Scholar]
  117. 117. 
    Zima BT, Wells KB, Freeman HE 1994. Emotional and behavioral problems and severe academic delays among sheltered homeless children in Los Angeles County. Am. J. Public Health 84:2260–64
    [Google Scholar]
/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-publhealth-040617-013553
Loading
/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-publhealth-040617-013553
Loading

Data & Media loading...

  • Article Type: Review Article
This is a required field
Please enter a valid email address
Approval was a Success
Invalid data
An Error Occurred
Approval was partially successful, following selected items could not be processed due to error