Polymers for additive manufacturing and 4D-printing: Materials, methodologies, and biomedical applications
Graphical abstract
Section snippets
Introduction to additive manufacturing (AM)
The ISO/ASTM standards define the term additive manufacturing (AM), colloquially known as 3D printing, as the “process of joining materials to make parts from 3D model data, usually layer upon layer, as opposed to subtractive manufacturing and formative manufacturing methodologies” [1]. It has to be clarified at this stage that there are a number of different subtypes of additive manufacturing including 3D printing, but also rapid prototyping and direct digital manufacturing (DDM). The term
Brief summary of the AM technologies
ASTM International criteria classify polymer AM technologies into seven different categories: (a) material extrusion, (b) powder bed fusion, (c) vat photopolymerization, (d) material jetting, (e) binder jetting, (f) sheet lamination, and (g) directed energy deposition [62,63]. Fig. 9 shows a diagram in which the different additive manufacturing methodologies are organized according to several parameters: state of fusion, material feedstock, material distribution, and the AM principle. While it
Fused deposition modeling (FDM)
As has been mentioned above, FDM is an AM process in which the layers are formed by extrusion of a solid plastic filament which passes through a nozzle/print head that melts and extrudes it [136]. To be used for FDM, the printing material must be able to flow, after fusion, and then solidify. Amorphous thermoplastic polymers are the ideal materials for this application due to their low thermal expansion coefficient, glass transition temperature and melting temperature, properties which can
Polymers for stereolithography (SLA)
As it has been introduced before, SLA is a manufacturing process which consists in the curing or solidification of a photosensitive liquid polymer (resin) by using a UV laser. The photosensitive resin is comprised of three major components:
(a) A photoinitiator, which absorbs the light and generates the active species.
(b) A reactive multifunctional monomer/oligomer. The backbone can vary in structure and weight and is designed to confer specific mechanical, physical or chemical properties of the
Selective laser sintering (SLS): polymer powders and composites
First of all, it is worth mentioning that the 3D printed parts fabricated using SLS can achieve similar mechanical properties as parts prepared by injection molding or similar forming techniques [168,169]. However, probably one of the major advantages of SLS is related to the “a priori” great variety of materials that could be employed, including polymers, metals, and blends (metals and ceramics/polymers) [97,169,170].
Examples of polymers that could be blended are acrylic styrene (AS), PCL or
Polymeric materials employed in 4D printing
As has been elaborated before, a general requirement for 4D printing is the use of one or more than one material with distinct physical properties which enables shape changes. Whereas a wide variety of polymeric materials are available for additive manufacturing (as has been thoroughly revised in the previous sections of this review), there still exist a lot of pending issues which must be fulfilled for the development of 4D materials. In spite of this, recent efforts to achieve complex 4D
Biomedical applications
Polymers are, without doubt, the fastest growing category among all the materials employed for biomedical applications during the last decade [263]. This remarkable growth is related to the advantages in the use of polymers for biomedical purposes in comparison to metals. Among the most important advantages, it is worth mentioning the biocompatibility of several polymers, as well as their elastic properties and bio-inertness.
The large variety of polymeric materials combined with the possibility
Conclusions and remarks
The development of a wide variety of additive manufacturing (AM) technologies offers nowadays versatile platforms for tailor-made fabrication of fully-customized products in a decentralized and cost-effective fashion. Besides its initial use limited as a tool for rapid prototyping or eventually for small-scale production of customized items, AM has become an interesting methodology to fabricate components with unusual shapes in a wide variety of applications ranging from architecture to
Acknowledgments
The authors acknowledge financial support given by FONDECYT Grant N° 1170209. M.A. Sarabia acknowledges the financial support given by CONICYT through the doctoral program Scholarship Grant. J. Rodriguez-Hernandez acknowledges financial support from the Spanish National Science Foundation (CSIC) and the Ministerio de Economia y Competitividad (MINECO) (Project MAT2016-78437-R, FONDOS FEDER). Finally, this study was funded by VRAC Grant Number L216-04 of Universidad Tecnológica Metropolitana.
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