Introduction

In Andalusia, the fishing industry is predominantly male-dominated, but there is growing recognition of women’s increasing involvement in onboard activities. AGAPA (2021) highlights the crucial roles women play in various aspects of fisheries, such as transformation, handling, sale, administration, and management. However, unlike other regions in Spain, women’s participation in activities like net mending, shellfishing, and fish marketing is not prominently visible in Andalusia. Studies conducted in different parts of Spain have emphasized women’s involvement in shellfish gathering (Frangoudes et al. 2008; Marugán Pintos 2004), fish processing (Muñoz Abeledo 2012), and family business management (Azpiazu 2016). Nevertheless, in Andalusia, these roles have often been overlooked and undervalued, with women’s contributions considered as unpaid household work (Herrera-Racionero et al. 2021; Harper et al. 2013; Florido del Corral 2005).

Furthermore, various studies highlight the significant contributions of women in the fishing sector, encompassing a range of roles such as net mending, preparing fishing gear, managing vessel administration and documentation, handling labor paperwork, cooking for the crew, assisting with product unloading and sales, among other tasks. These contributions, although significant, have often been unnoticed (Carbonell 2018; Frangoudes et al. 2023; Herrera-Racionero et al. 2021; van Ginkel 2009; Resurreccion 2006). Moreover, in many cases, women’s tasks in the fishing sector were considered part of women’s contributions to the household economy, resulting in them not receiving payment or being formally employed for these duties (Frangoudes 2011; Herrera-Racionero et al. 2021).

A study conducted by the regional government of Andalusia in 2021 reveals that women’s involvement in the fishing sector has increased by 30% over a span of 9 years, rising from 15.1% in 2011 to 19.7% in 2020. However, the presence of women in extractive activities remains relatively low (AGAPA 2021; Herrera-Racionero et al. 2021; Simmance et al. 2018).

Various studies point out different factors that have influenced the limited presence of women in extractive activities, such as the lack of structural adaptation of fishing vessels and the challenging working conditions inherent in this sector (AGAPA 2021; Harper et al 2013). Additionally, the way in which the reproduction of the household economy was articulated with industrial and fishing capital (fishing factories, sales and marketing companies, owners of larger boats) fostered the instrumentalization of the tasks carried out by men and women, and subordinated and made women invisible (Florido del Corral 2005).

Furthermore, the study by AGAPA (2021) highlights that the inclusion of women in the fishing sector is not an easy task, as they face challenges not only in accessing various job opportunities but also in advancing professionally once they enter the sector. The ratio of female vessel captains to male captains is approximately one per every 1500 male captains.

Additionally, it is worth noting that women have been actively engaging in associations in the past few decades to enhance their visibility within the fishing sector and ensure equitable compensation for their contributions. Moreover, women are assuming an increasingly pivotal position in various initiatives related to the blue economy, including marine tourism, environmental conservation, sustainability projects, and emerging technologies (Red Española de Mujeres en el Sector Pesquero 2020; Herrera-Racionero et al. 2021).

Within this framework, this research aims to analyze the labor reality of women in the Andalusian fishing sector, identifying the ideological factors and socio-economic conditions that are hindering the access of women to this sector. Implicitly, we also ask ourselves whether the progressive incorporation of women could help address various challenges and contribute to solving different issues related to the social sustainability of fisheries in the Andalusian fishing sector. We refer to challenges such as lack of generational replacement, aging of the working population and a weak innovation in the artisanal fishing sector; gender imbalances and inequalities, loss of local knowledge, and certain occupational skills in the fishing world. Moreover, the study analyzes the contributions that women are bringing to the fishing sector through projects, associations, among other initiatives.

Methodology

For this research, data has been collected through in-depth 70 questionnaires (see Annex 1) conducted via personalized interviews. These interviews were recorded with the consent of the participants and were conducted both in person and online. This approach provided an opportunity for the informants to offer unexpected narrative insights, and the collected discursive material was analyzed as part of the research process.

Participant observation was carried out in the ports where the interviews were conducted. Additionally, the team participated in activities organized by the Andalusian Association of Women in Fishing (AndMuPes for its acronym in Spanish), obtaining information about women’s organizations, the relationship among women’s associations in different ports, their main concerns regarding the fishing sector, and their role in management and extractive activities.

The sample has a dual territorial and social dimension. Territorially, it is organized by ports (25 out of 28 ports in Andalusia) (see Figs. 1 and 2), and socially, it consists of a total of 65 interviewed women. However, a series of interviews were also conducted with men (to capture provincial diversity) to provide even a glimpse of differentiation in their perspectives (5 in total).

Fig. 1
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Fishing ports in Andalucía where interviews were conducted

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Fig. 2
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Source: Own elaboration

Number of interviews by port.

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The sample data includes information about the family situation (Fig. 3), which is significant in examining the perceptions and narratives collected, especially in relation to whether the female informants have or have had family responsibilities, including caring for children. This allows us to assess the perspectives of women who have successfully balanced their family duties with their work in the fishing sector or other unpaid endeavors. This is despite the fact that the gender distribution of tasks in the family group was clearly unequal to the detriment of women.

Fig. 3
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Source: Own elaboration based on field work

Distribution of female informants by family responsibilities (%).

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The sample also reflects the diversity of socio-professional roles performed by women associated with the fishing sector today. Service-related responsibilities exceed those associated with extraction tasks (Fig. 4), placing a distinct emphasis on management, especially administrative duties. However, roles in associations, spanning political management positions and the extractive sector, are experiencing gradual growth. The sample also reflects the recent emergence of women in technical advisory roles (sectoral projects, environment) and entrepreneurial tourism.

Fig. 4
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Source: Own elaboration based on field work

Role of women that were interviewed (%).

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Three profiles that have a long-standing historical presence of women were not included in the sample. These profiles include women workers in canning factories, fish vendors in marketplaces, and employees of aquaculture companies (which are relatively more recent). These particular groups have been extensively studied and have ample statistical and academic information available (AGAPA 2021; Cáceres Feria, 2002; Rubio-Ardanaz 2006). The research focused on analyzing fishing ports as the primary unit of analysis, considering them as socially cohesive environments with a high degree of redundant social relationships (Maya-Jariego et al. 2016). Due to the method of contacting informants through personal networks, certain profiles, such as women workers in the aquaculture sector, were not represented in the study since they typically do not belong to the specific social context being examined.

Results and discussion

Challenges to social reproduction in artisanal fishing: gender dynamics and socio-economic factors

Labor conditions and economic insecurity

The labor market in the fishing sector is characterized by segmentation and redundancy, as it relies on a limited pool of individuals. According to AGAPA´s (2021) study it can be observed that the fishing sector does not have a high representation of young people. The age group of 16-29 constitutes 20.4% of the workforce. In contrast, the majority of the workforce falls within the 30-64 age range, with 39.2% belonging to the 30-44 age group and 38.9% to the 45-64 age group. Furthermore, the crews belong to a well-defined social sphere, with no incorporation of people from other social backgrounds, including young people. This feature has emerged repeatedly in the surveys carried out.

Moreover, the fishing industry in Spain has faced challenges with depleted fish populations and unfavorable market conditions, resulting in decreased profitability. The reform of the Common Fisheries Policy aims to promote sustainability but involves restrictive measures impacting catches, fishing time, and the overall socio-economic framework. Economic factors contributing to declining earnings include stagnant market prices, reduced fishing yields, and increased operating costs (Villa et al. 2007). There is widespread recognition that pay conditions are not sufficiently attractive and do not provide a sustainable income to support a family economy. The causes pointed out by informants are the perception of uncertainty in fishing trips; the tendency for prices received by fishermen to stagnate; and the so called share system (sistema a la parte) as a mechanism of remuneration in small-scale fleets (remuneration is not a salary, but the week’s sales are distributed between owners and workers) (Pascual Fernández et al. 2020). In addition, there is a perception that work at sea is hard, with working hours that are hardly compatible with what is considered a normal life.

During the last decades, the generalized recruitment and hiring system was the “part-time and permanent seasonal contracts.” Shipowners could terminate crews in case of any contingency. This created a vulnerable and insecure position among sailors, which made recruitment unattractive. The Spanish government implemented a Labour Reform in 2022 on urgent measures to guarantee employment stability and the transformation of the labour market.Footnote 1 In all the ports investigated, hiring has been adjusted to the new legal framework, but, so far, no response of greater interest on the part of seafarers to be recruited in the new context has been detected. One effect of this crisis in the fisheries labor market is the loss of strategic occupations, such as fisheries technicians or, in particular, net menders.

Additionally, the values and expectations of young people have shifted, with a greater emphasis on pursuing higher education, limited availability due to incompatible working hours, and a lack of commitment to fishing companies. As a result, they are prone to abandoning the fishing activity at the slightest difficulty or when alternative opportunities arise. This situation poses a significant challenge for ensuring generational replacement in the small-scale fishing sector. In any case, in ports where fishing activity is socially well rooted, in both Atlantic and Mediterranean ports, it has been noted that the crisis in other sectors such as construction (from 2010 onwards) caused some of the fishing workers to return to the sector: “back to mother fishing – Madre pesca —,” as an informant from the port of Motril (Granada) told us.

Another limiting factor for new enrollments is the scheduling of the mandatory training courses for sailors. Sometimes courses are organized at times when the fleet is operational; i.e., their timing is not adjusted to the seasonality of the fishing operations. In addition, these courses are often announced well in advance, leading to a situation where young individuals who express interest in participating may ultimately not attend when the course is finally held, which could be several months later.

The main response of shipowners to find crews in the absence of a local population is to recruit migrants. This trend is more established in Mediterranean ports, although it is also widespread in Atlantic ports. These are people of Moroccan, Senegalese, or Mauritanian origin, especially from the coastal areas of the north-west coast of Africa. The first concern is to regularize the situation of these workers and to ensure that they complete training courses. The incorporation of Latin American crews is also known in some fishing ports.

In certain ports like Barbate, Chipiona, Adra, and Almeria, where various fishing modalities exist, shipowners engage in competition by offering incentives to attract the most skilled and reputable fishermen. Even in some ports, such as Almeria and Punta Umbria (Huelva), we have identified that some shipowners from the most intensive fleets (purse seine) are offering contracts with a salary, guaranteed the so-called inter-professional minimum wage legally defined.

And women?

Within the framework of active policies to encourage women’s participation in the workforce, there is an observed increase in hiring, labor activity, and social recognition of women in various areas of the fishing industry. Women are taking on roles such as fish buyers at auctions, administrative and political positions of responsibility, technical and research positions, and in maritime-fishing tourism activities (Herrera-Racionero et al. 2021).

Based on the data gathered during field research, an approximate estimation of the number of women employed in the fishing industry in Andalusia was obtained. In defining profiles, it is important to acknowledge the unique social and cultural conditions of fishing communities, as well as the challenge of representing dynamic social roles in statistical analysis. Our approach involved simplification for statistical purposes, focusing on individuals’ predominant roles to better understand their discourse and ideological positioning.

The obtained results (Table 1) align closely with the data provided by the AGAPA administration (2021) regarding the analyzed job sectors in our field survey.

Table 1 Representation of the sample by role/roles: number of female informants and percent distribution.
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However, the participation of women in the extractive sector remains limited and progresses at a slow pace. Along the entire South Atlantic coast, Punta Umbria stands out as a port where women are employed in all types of vessels, and in other ports in Cadiz, their presence is noted in different fishing modalities. In the Mediterranean, Motril and various ports in Almeria are notable examples. In all cases, this labor participation is closely linked to pre-existing family relationships, such as sisters/daughters or as wives. It can therefore be argued that, simultaneously, the family network acts as both a facilitating and limiting factor, as beyond these familial ties, there is no possibility of being hired as a female fisher. However, in certain instances, women from fishing families, possessing the required qualifications are incorporated through fictitious enrollment to meet bureaucratic obligations instead of being genuinely hired.

The survey has shown that the role of associations can be a factor that promotes greater female labor participation, as seen in the demonstrated effect in Punta Umbria or Almeria. Newly established associations in recent years (Ayamonte, Punta Umbria, Barbate, Conil, Estepona, Almeria) are already showing their capacity to drive change, while other more traditional entities, established in the province of Almeria or women net menders association in Barbate, still need to validate their transformative capacity. In contrast, in ports where there is no such associative activity, the registered perception is one of a radical incompatibility between women’s visible social action and the fishing industry. This makes more difficult to change the inertia of invisibilization of the different roles of women in fishing industry, and to promote the presence of female fishers on board, directly participating in harvesting activities.

Values, ideas, and discourses on the difficulties of women’s access to the extractive and fishing sector and the recruitment crisis

Women’s contribution to the fishing sector

The women who were interviewed emphasized that women entering the fishing sector can make diverse contributions. Firstly, they play a crucial role in managing and administering fishing operations. Often, women handle administrative tasks and maintain the necessary documentation for the vessels. Secondly, they bring a distinctive perspective to fishing activities, characterized by their conciliatory nature, rationality, organizational skills, and orderliness. Additionally, the women interviewed exhibit a particular sensitivity towards addressing environmental concerns, promoting education, and supporting the development of sustainable tourism.

Based on the conducted interviews, women indicate the following areas and how they can contribute to the fishing sector if they are included in offshore activities:

  • Work-life balance and rational decision-making: According to the informants view, women can bring a unique perspective to the table, enabling them to analyze situations calmly and contribute to a management style that helps prevent or minimize sanctions in the fishing sector.

  • Efficiency and organization: Women are recognized for their ability to introduce order and organization into various aspects of the sector, including administrative tasks and fishing operations.

  • Leadership and administration: Women have played a significant historical role in the management of fishing companies, especially in small-scale fleets (under the expression: taking the boat documents) In the last decade, in addition, women are achieving managerial and administrative positions in fishing organizations. They could continue to offer valuable contributions in this area.

  • Environmental awareness and education: According to informants perceptions, women possess a special sensitivity to environmental issues and can implement projects that contribute to the preservation of marine ecosystems. They also state that they have the potential to drive environmental education initiatives to promote awareness of sustainable practices, highlight the importance of the fishing sector, and emphasize the need for marine species conservation for economic and food security reasons.

  • Gender equality: Women and men are equally capable of working in the fishing industry. The focus should be on knowledge and skills rather than gender differences, promoting a fair and inclusive work environment.

By recognizing and harnessing these contributions, the sector can benefit from the valuable perspectives and skills that women bring, leading to a more inclusive and successful fishing industry.

According to the survey, 40% of men hold the view that women do not have a distinct impact on the sector. However, the remaining 60% acknowledge that women can contribute in multiple ways, including enhancing fisheries management, promoting order and cleanliness, and introducing fresh perspectives on organization and work approaches.

Women bring drive, optimism. They also have a different point of view and have improved fisheries management. (Shipowner, Motril 51-60, own translation).

Regarding the involvement of women in addressing the issue of generational succession in the artisanal fishing sector, there were different perspectives. Some women believed that they can contribute across all areas of fishing and thus fill the gaps left by the shortage of sailors, skippers, net-menders, and engine operators in many ports. However, it was acknowledged that there is a barrier preventing women from joining fishing vessels. Most of the women who are already involved are typically family members of boat owners (wives, sisters, daughters) or are boat owners themselves. It was emphasized that it is important to create opportunities for women to view fishing as a viable career option and for boat owners to demonstrate a willingness to hire women. In some surveys, it was stated that it was the female boat owners who were not interested or were opposed to the presence of women outside the family group on board.

The few fisherwomen that exist, are immediate family members, so we have to bridge that gap, so that you can hire a woman who is going to be equal to a man. We women have to believe that we can do it. (Administrative, Chipiona 31-40 years old, own translation).

Nevertheless, some women expressed the belief that women’s involvement in the fishing industry is limited to onshore roles such as administration and managing boat paperwork. They emphasized that the challenges of balancing family responsibilities hinder women’s participation in sea-related activities.

Limitations for the incorporation of women in the fishing sector

Regarding the main limitations for women's enrollment, questions were asked using a Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree), considering the criteria established in Fig. 5.

Fig. 5
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Source: Own elaboration based on field work. The rating ranges from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree)

Perception about the limitations for women to enroll.

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In this regard, the interviewed women’s responses generally agree that family reconciliation and a preference for unrelated salaried jobs are significant barriers to women’s participation in the fishing sector. Their views vary on women's inclination toward fishing and the constraints posed by inadequate vessel conditions.

They hold a neutral position with a slight tendency towards disagreement regarding women’s exposure to knowledge transmission in the sector. However, they strongly disagree with the belief that fishing is too hard for women or that their non-enrollment is due to cost-saving domestic arrangements where they work without formal employment. Many women emphasize the need to formalize their work in the sector and ensure it is recognized and valued rather than considered unpaid assistance to the family economy.

Moreover, this data was analyzed considering the diverse roles of the interviewed women and the perspective of men was also taken into consideration. Although only five men (one per province) were interviewed, their views provided an initial insight into men's perspectives on the challenges women face to get enrolled in the fishing sector.

In relation for the perception of the limitation for women's enrollment in the fishing sector, the interviewed women in the extractive sector strongly disagree with the idea that the “domestic organization of women at home” presents an obstacle to women working at sea. They argue that they have successfully managed their domestic responsibilities while acquiring the necessary knowledge and skills for seafaring. On the other hand, most women in other sectors and some men consider domestic organization as a potential limitation. When it comes to the exposure to knowledge transmission, men agree that it is a limitation for women, whereas women themselves disagree. Women assert that they have access to relevant knowledge and skills and believe that their interest and willingness to learn and apply these skills contribute to their engagement in maritime activities.

In terms of vessel conditions, most women and men maintain a neutral or disagreeing stance, indicating that the lack of vessel conditioning is not necessarily viewed as a significant limiting factor. However, women in management and advisory roles express concerns that inadequate vessel conditions can hinder women’s participation in seafaring, although it is a problem that also affects men, due to the fact that the habitability conditions of small-scale fleets can be improved.

Women in the extractive sector strongly disagree with the notion that “fishing work is too hard for women” as a limitation for their enrollment. In contrast, many other women and men hold a neutral or disagreeing position on this matter (Table 2).

Table 2 Perception about the limitations for women to enroll according to roles.
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Regarding the compatibility of schedules for family reconciliation, women in the extractive sector strongly disagree with it being a limitation, while the majority of other women agree that incompatible schedules can hinder women’s enrollment. Men, however, maintain a neutral stance on this statement.

Women in advisory and marketing roles disagree with the idea that “lack of interest” is a limitation for women’s enrollment. However, the majority of the women in other sectors and some men slightly agree that lack of interest can be a hindrance to women's involvement in seafaring.

Lastly, women in the marketing sector strongly agree that women’s preference for salaried jobs over seafaring can be a limitation. Most of the women in other sectors and men also agree or slightly agree with this perspective.

Based on the interviews, women consider that their incorporation into the fishing sector faces various challenges and limitations. In this context, several specific obstacles have been identified that hinder women’s participation in seafaring roles. These limitations include gender inequality, difficulties in conciliating family and work life, the role of family relationships, and the lack of a tradition of women in maritime work. Understanding and addressing these barriers is crucial for promoting gender equality and creating opportunities for women to contribute to the fishing industry. Let us delve into each of these limitations in more detail.

  • Gender inequality: Limited opportunities for women to be hired due to the perception of seafaring jobs as predominantly male.

  • Work-life balance: Challenges in balancing family responsibilities with the demanding schedules of fishing, although some women sailors claim it's a matter of organization. Lack of effective commitment to domestic and family responsibilities by men is a key aspect.

  • Role of family relationships: Women often embark with their families or on boats where they are owners, limiting opportunities for those without existing family connections.

  • Lack of tradition: Many women do not consider working at sea due to the perception of it being a male-dominated job and limited chances of being hired as crew members. Factors such as the difficulty or effort of the tasks are mentioned, but the women who work as sailors and/or shipbuilders insist that the tasks are perfectly manageable. It is more about having the right knowledge to relate to the new technological areas and the people in the social environment, that is, to acquire experience.

Final remarks

The extractive sector faces multiple obstacles to labor regeneration. Economic instability, perceptions of sectoral crisis, inadequate training policies, evolving societal aspirations, and cultural barriers contribute to the stagnation in attracting new workers. Moreover, the limited social scope of the labor market within fishing fleets, primarily relying on close social and family connections, restricts the renewal of labor force composition. The inclusion of women in the fleets represents a potential solution to address these challenges, as it can lead to social normalization and diversification. Women’s associations play a crucial role in promoting gender equality and expanding opportunities for women within the sector. Addressing these issues and fostering a more inclusive and dynamic labor market will be essential for the long-term sustainability and development of the extractive sector.

Women’s experience and contributions in the fishing sector are highly valued as they bring unique perspectives, skills, and knowledge to various aspects of the industry. They possess deep understanding of traditional fishing practices, adeptness in gear handling and repair, and a commitment to implementing sustainable fishing methods. Beyond their physical labor, women play significant roles in the management, administration, and decision-making processes within fishing organizations. Their presence greatly contributes to the overall success and sustainability of the sector by fostering diverse perspectives, promoting effective resource management, and ensuring the inclusion of different voices and experiences. The valuable contributions of women in the fishing sector extend far beyond the immediate tasks at hand, enriching the industry and paving the way for a more inclusive and resilient future. Unlike some prejudices, women who live in a fishing cultural context are sensitive to this tradition of knowledge and attitudes necessary for a work culture of fishing.

In conclusion, the perspectives and experiences of women in the fishing sector highlight both opportunities and challenges. Women recognize the value of associations and their potential to address their needs and drive projects. They assert their capabilities to perform tasks traditionally associated with men, while also acknowledging the obstacles they face, such as gender inequality. The resistance from men — and from some women — and self-perception as barriers to enrollment should be addressed to promote gender equality and increase women’s participation in the sector. Efforts to provide continuous training, improve economic security, and enhance knowledge dissemination about the fishing industry will further support the inclusion and active engagement of women and men in fishing activities. It is a task that should be undertaken by both government agencies, fishing organizations, and companies.

Conclusions and proposals

The study conducted on the role of women in the fishing sector in Andalusia has highlighted the need to promote greater inclusion and participation of women in this sector. Despite progress in other areas of employment, women’s presence in artisanal fishing is limited and faces various obstacles and limitations.

However, the study has also revealed opportunities and potential to strengthen the role of women in the fishing sector. The active presence of women in certain ports (such as Punta Umbría, Motril, and Almería) and fishing modalities has generated a positive demonstration effect, increasing the number of enrollments and gaining greater social acceptance of their participation. This illustrates the potential for change and the significant contribution that women can make to the revitalization and long-term viability of the sector.

Given that the fishing labor market is segmented and redundant in the extractive sector (but not limited to it), sectoral organizations, including women’s associations, could engage in political dialogue to encourage the hiring of women with the support of public funding. Moreover, several studies (Carlsson and Berkes 2005; Crona and Bodin 2006) have demonstrated that co-management structures, facilitates an understanding of stakeholder engagement and the dynamics of power and resource sharing, as well as leadership processes. Therefore, it is not only for the sake of gender equality but also for the potential effective contribution of women to the labor and entrepreneurial renewal of the fishing sector in its various aspects.

In terms of training, it is important to promote collaboration agreements with educational institutions to facilitate onboard hours for higher-level training courses, especially for vessel capitains. The women organizations such as AndMuPes could initiate these agreements, promoting the inclusion of women in these courses.

There is a lack of content related to environmental values, cultural values of the fishing activity, and the handling and processing of products for commercial value in fishing training. These values are particularly recognized as important by women, so emphasizing them could make training more adapted to the perspectives and expectations of women in the fishing sector.

It is crucial to have a policy that transmits the values of maritime and fishing work to society. The work cultures in the sector are based on values such as professionalism, craftsmanship, autonomy resulting from artisanal tasks, lifelong learning, sacrifice, and a sense of belonging to a well-identified community. These values, as experienced and applied by professionals in the sector, should be conveyed through a policy of social communication. AndMuPes should initiate lines of work from a women’s perspective and for women, which would have an impact on the entire population, regardless of gender or whether they belong to the fishing sector.

AndMuPes can develop a technical support line for women’s associations regarding project calls within the framework of European funding. This would help overcome perceived obstacles for women to engage in these frameworks, particularly in the preferred areas identified in this study (tourism, environment, women’s inclusion, improvement of fishing techniques, etc.).

Given the issue of renewing the role of net menders and the historical absence of women in these tasks in more intensive fleets (purse seining and trawling), it is urgent to provide economic incentives and institutional support for specific training in these skills for women. This should build upon existing initiatives (such as in Barbate) but needs to be reinforced.