Introduction

There is mounting evidence that during the COVID-19 epidemic, boredom, despair, and anxiety have significantly increased (Huang & Zhao, 2020). Online games offer a wide virtual world that may be safe for addressing demands (e.g., social connections and a sense of competence) that cannot be met under the conditions of a pandemic-imposed self-isolation (Giardina et al., 2021). Therefore, during the COVID-19 epidemic, there was a noticeable rise in online gaming (King et al., 2020).

In particular during the COVID-19 epidemic, playing video games can be a helpful activity for reducing stress and altering mood (Lee et al., 2017). Creating a healthy daily routine can be difficult, though, due to excessive gaming and harmful coping mechanisms (Amin et al., 2022). An individual's wellbeing is closely related to appropriate gaming participation (Amin et al., 2022). A literature review revealed that playing virtual reality games can help people relax, recover from fatigue, or improve their mood (Pallavicini & Pepe, 2020). Studies have demonstrated that playing computer games on desktop displays can elicit joyful or happy feelings (Granic et al., 2014; Osmanovic & Pecchioni, 2015), often seen as a self-rewarding mechanism that helps improve a person’s subsequent mood. The quest for distractions and escapism is one of the most often mentioned reasons for playing video games, according to Yang and Liu (2017), and regular players have endorsed gameplay as a way to unwind (Wack & Tantleff-Dunn, 2009). From the perspective of recovery from work, students can temporarily forget the source of negative emotions by engaging in activities that make them feel happy or taking a break from homework-related activities to achieve psychological detachment and restore their resources for working (Sonnentag & Lischetzke, 2018). Therefore, playing online games should afford students a pleasant experience by focusing on things they like and turning their attention away from their studies while simultaneously relieving stress and improving their mood by chatting with their classmates through social media. Accordingly, this study applies the mood regulation theory (Larsen, 2000) to analyze playing online games as a mood-repairing behavior to determine the effect of students’ mood repair brought about by playing online games. According to Larsen (2000), people tend to retain a happy attitude, therefore when they have a bad mood, they concentrate on fixing and elevating it. Compared to coping strategies that address stressors, emotion regulation seeks to improve mood through different mood repair behaviors (Larsen, 2000). Therefore, this study will examine the hypothesis that if playing online games has the effect of mood repair, then when students experience negative mood, they will be more likely to use online games to enhance their subsequent positive mood.

Hedonic motives are based on pleasure and comfort and advocate that people enjoy themselves (Huta & Ryan, 2010). Individuals with different motivations may have different attitudes, emotions, and behavioral responses to their situations, determining how much happiness they experience while pursuing their goals (Huta & Waterman, 2014; Sun et al., 2022). Hedonic motives may alleviate negative emotions once individuals perceive them by avoiding adverse events (e.g., academic pressure) and temporarily seeking positive events (e.g., traveling and playing games) (Huta & Ryan, 2010). Hedonic motives may be more sensitive to negative emotions because they are oriented toward pleasure, enjoyment, and comfort (Sun et al., 2023). Recent studies on emotion regulation have suggested that hedonic motives are important factors driving people to regulate their emotions (Tamir, 2016). Prior research (e.g., Chang et al., 2012) has focused on the relationship between hedonic motivation and the continued intention to play online games; however, the moderating effect of hedonic motivation remains unexplored. Hence, this study used hedonic motivation to moderate mood and online game usage.

Based on the above, the purpose of this research is stated as follows: (1) to explore the relationship between initial daily negative mood, online game usage and subsequent positive mood; (2) to explore whether hedonic motivation can moderate the relationship between initial daily negative mood and online game usage; (3) to explore whether hedonic motivation can moderate the relationship between online game usage and subsequent positive mood.

Literature review and hypothesis development

The relationship between initial daily negative mood, online game usage and subsequent positive mood

Research on the connection between games and mental well-being has found that many people use games to relieve negative emotions or recover from stressful situations (Kosa and Uysal, 2020). In an interview study with 71 online gamers, Hussain and Griffiths (2009) found that approximately one-third of participants played MMORPGs because the game helped them relieve their negative emotions. Games help regulate negative emotions and extend/enhance positive emotions (Kosa and Uysal, 2020). For instance, casual games have been found to decrease stress and improve mood (Russoniello et al., 2009). Games are a useful medium for mood management. For instance, playing games helps reduce hostility and enhance positive affect (Serrone, 2012). Similarly, another study investigated the effects of in-game success on mood repair in the context of a racing game and found that in-game success predicted mood repair (Rieger et al., 2014a, 2014b).

A growing amount of research is showing how beneficial video games are at reducing bad moods (Bowman & Tamborini, 2012; Rieger et al., 2014a, 2014b; Valadez & Ferguson, 2012). People tend to participate in mood regulation practices when they are feeling down (Baumeister et al., 2001; Glomb et al., 2011; Larsen, 2000). Larsen (2000) argues that when individuals are in a bad mood, they will engage in mood-altering behaviors, such as seeking distractions or pleasant things as self-reward like engaging in sports or social activities or eating. Online games in particular help to restore mood by posing challenging tasks that can energies the player and divert attention from unpleasant emotions. On the psychological level, playing online games should lead to mood repair through two mechanisms.

  1. (1)

    Attention shift: Games also provide a mode of escape, offering respite from unpleasant situations. For example, in a series of interviews, Carras et al. (2018) found that military veterans often used games as a form of self-medication or therapy due to gameplay’s ability to act as a distraction. Distraction is an emotional regulation and coping behavior that involves removal from negative affect and is often used in mood management (Reinecke & Oliver, 2016). Media, including video games, are used for distraction (Caro and Popovac, 2021; Eden et al., 2020). Video games allow people to cope with and regulate emotions, mood management, respite, and stress (Kosa and Uysal, 2020), especially during difficult life situations (Iacovides and Mekler, 2019; Pearce et al., 2022). Mental disengagement through video games helps players decrease their stress levels after strenuous activities (Kosa and Uysal, 2020). Escapism can also act as a mood management strategy, as people tend to play games to avoid negative mood states and induce positive mood states (Kosa and Uysal, 2020). When some individuals experience a negative mood, they can effectively relieve it through an attention shift (Luomala, 2002), temporarily forgetting negative emotional events by shifting their attention to preferred activities. Thus, schoolchildren may become addicted to online games through their poor academic performance. Although they are psychologically stressed by poor results after studying hard, online games have different characteristics from the daily life environment, providing a feeling of escape in which responsibilities and schoolwork can be forgotten. Thus, children find fun, comfort, and distraction in games when experiencing negative emotions such as anger and depression. In a game, a player plays one or several characters in the virtual world to fight an enemy, upgrade a level, collect equipment, complete the tasks set by the game, and experience a plot. Thus, when players play a role in the virtual world, they can stop thinking about work-related matters by engaging in activities that are unrelated to work. The environmental elements of the online game space can form an imaginative environment that attracts users’ attention and stimulates their curiosity regarding activities or behaviors that they like. From the perspective of attention shift, playing online games l can help students temporarily escape their difficulties and repair their negative moods.

  2. (2)

    Increased social interaction: Online games provide social mechanisms and platforms for players to communicate with each other through game behavior, promoting closer relationships with family members or peers by teaming up on tasks, sharing game scores, and chatting (Lin et al., 2015). The popularity of social media has also expanded connections to games, which has increased the number of people joining through social influence (Dong and Wyer, 2014). Crawford (1997) pointed out that the real and virtual worlds are often intertwined, and players will start a game after being invited or at the recommendation of their peers, extending their offline friendship online. The sense of social interaction is the online or offline interaction feeling that consumers have with others through the game app, allowing consumers to use the community function to interact with friends, chat, and work together to solve tasks (Schiano and White, 1998). When consumers establish social connections with others in this environment, this affords them greater physical or psychological pleasure (Cohen and Wills, 1985), leading them to prolong their play time. In addition, in the process of individual interaction with others, the player will experience excitement and pleasant emotional responses.

There is a clear set of benefits in terms of how games can foster social connections and maintain mental well-being by avoiding negative circumstances and increasing connections with others (Carras et al., 2018). Kleinman et al. (2021) confirmed the findings of previous studies, particularly how games are used to increase social connection or distract oneself from unpleasant situations. Kleinman et al. (2021) also found new themes unique to the quarantine, such as interactions with non-player characters used as a surrogate for real-world interaction and using in-game routines as a substitute for real-world routines lost due to the pandemic.

Through these two processes, students should have more time and chances to experience the impacts of distraction, psychological detachment, and social contacts as a result of the increased use of online games, which should improve their mood. Consequently, we suggest the following hypothesis:

  • H1: Online game usage mediates the relationship between initial daily negative mood and subsequent positive mood.

The Role of Hedonic motivation

The willingness to start engaging in behaviors that increase positive experiences and decrease unpleasant experiences is known as hedonic motivation (pleasant or nice). In other words, people tend to start acting in ways that lead to rewards or away from punishments (Gray, 1981). Hedonic motivation, according to Xu (2014), is defined as pleasure gained from utilizing a technology. Hedonic motivation positively affects purchase intention in online games, according to the findings of studies by Mäntymäki and Salo (2013), Han and Windsor (2013), and Akbar et al. (2018). Some consumers play online games because they enjoy the process of playing; players can always find their own place and derive enjoyment from it, and as players gain experience points, their play upgrades. As hedonic consumption can lead to emotional arousal, self-regulation is reduced, resulting in diminished regard for its consequences, leading to greater app gameplay.

According to Hirschman and Holbrook (1982), experiencing items through noises, fragrances, tactile sensations, and visual images is a crucial component of hedonic consumption. Time and effort optimization may be less significant for hedonic shoppers who seek experience rewards from enjoyment, excitement, or the shopping action itself, according to Rintamäki et al. (2006). Ho et al. (2011) found that many players used video games to escape from specific problems and play new roles in a different ecosystem. Berry et al. (2002) claim that consumers do not typically seek to minimize time and effort costs in the benefit stage of a hedonic service experience. This study posits that the effect of playing online games on students experiencing negative moods is determined by their personal hedonic motivation to repair their mood. If they feel unpleasant feelings like rage and sadness, consumers with high hedonic motivation are more likely to switch their attention by playing online games. By playing different roles in the virtual online game world, students can relieve stress and repair their negative mood. As a result, we can provide the following hypothesis:

  • H2:The relationship between initial daily negative mood and online game usage will be moderated by hedonic motivation, such that students with higher hedonic motivation will show a stronger positive correlation between initial daily negative mood and online game usage, for students with low hedonic motivation, the positive relationship between negative mood and online game usage will be attenuated.

Individuals’ hedonic game-related needs, which reflect their desire for game-related pleasure, emotional gratification, enjoyment, playfulness, and fun, have emerged as key drivers of their respective spectating and game-playing behaviors (e.g., Patzer et al., 2020). These hedonic needs can be met through various game-related elements, including the game narrative, aesthetics, competition, intellectual challenge, and/or socializing, to name a few (Hollebeke et al., 2022). When consumers perceive high levels of hedonic value from consumption experiences, they express positive behavioral intentions, such as continued usage (Chiu et al., 2014). When the use of a technology arouses pleasure and perceived enjoyment, it might produce shifts in users’ affective states, thus creating positive feelings that may increase satisfaction levels (Casaló et al., 2017). By promoting a state of relaxation and happy feelings, many desktop video game genres have reportedly been shown to be useful in reducing anxiety in people (Naugle et al., 2014). According to Hemenover and Bowman (2018) and Bowman and Tamborini (2012), playing video games can improve mood and increase positive feelings. In addition, because it helps restore exhausted resources, it can aid in the recovery from stress and strain, which is regarded as a step after coping (Reinecke, 2009). The vast majority of online games are continuously being tested and improved by game manufacturers to meet certain psychological needs. They are easy to start and continue playing, and present a continuous series of rewards, such as ranks, which enhance positive mood. This study posits that students with high hedonic motivation are more motivated to pursue mood restoration; thus, as the time spent playing online games increases, the effect of subsequent positive mood improvement will be greater. Conversely, students with low hedonic motives need to balance enjoyment and achievement when considering their own lives, leading them to apply self-control to avoid addiction to gaming. Their time spent playing online games will be reduced, and the subsequent positive mood improvement effect will be less. As a result, we suggest the following:

  • H3: The relationship between online game usage and subsequent positive mood will be moderated by hedonic motivation, such that students with higher hedonic motivation will show a stronger positive correlation between online game usage and Subsequent positive mood. Contrariwise, for students with low hedonic motivation, the positive relationship between online game usage and Subsequent positive mood will be attenuated.

Method

Data source

We examined game play in 200 students at a Taiwanese university who reported their personal data for five consecutive days, yielding a total of 1000 original data points. As this study uses “online game usage” as the research variable, the following criteria for exclusion were applied: During the test period (five consecutive working days) subjects who have not used online games (meaning that they may not play online games); and “not using online games” on the day of the test. Of the 200 recruited participants, 160 students in total met the eligibility requirements and supplied at least one complete set of survey replies, resulting in 800 observations for testing the hypothesis. Following that, 200 questionnaires were given out, and 160 valid samples were received, thereby giving a return ratio of 80 per cent. Of the 160 valid samples, 90 (56.25%) were male and 70 (43.75%) were female. The subjects were between the ages of 20 and 23 years, and included 49 (30.63%) freshmen, 44 (27.50%) sophomores, 35 (21.75%) juniors and 32(20.12%) seniors.

This study adopted the experience sampling method to collect daily data twice a day (i.e., 10:10 a.m. and 5 p.m.) across five consecutive days. The 200 participants were asked to complete the questionnaire survey for five consecutive working days. On the first day, the subjects completed a hedonism measurement instrument and provided basic information and other personal-level information. Questionnaires were distributed twice a day, just after class in the morning and once in the afternoon before leaving school. The morning questionnaire was sent out at 10:10 to collect initial daily negative / positive mood every day. The afternoon questionnaire was sent out at 5 p.m. (before leaving school) to collect the subsequent positive mood and daily mobile game usage. To improve the response rate and timeliness of the questionnaire, this study followed the process of Chi et al. (2015) by sending each subject a link with an exclusive questionnaire code for data matching, and tracking the subjects’ completion of the questionnaire within the specified time. Five independent links were thus sent for the daily questionnaire. The answering system automatically recorded the time and filtered out the samples that were not completed within the set time, so as to prevent the subjects from changing their answers or responding late. After five days of data collection, a US$3.3 (100 NT) commodity card was given to the test subjects as a reward.

Measures

To confirm meaning equivalence, two bilinguals with fluency in both English and Chinese performed two-way back translations. To evaluate the scale's content validity, three professionals in the field of technology management looked at it. Additionally, a pilot research was carried out by emailing the questionnaire to 30 students.

Hedonistic motivation

The term “pleasure or satisfaction derived from the use of technology” is used to define hedonistic motivation. We slightly modified the referents of Venkatesh et al. (2012) three-item scale to assess hedonistic motivation. Sample items include, “Using game app is fun”, “Using game app is enjoyable”, and “Using game app is entertaining”. The respondents rated the frequency of each item using a 5-point scale with 1 being strongly disagree and 5 being highly agree. For this scale, the internal consistency coefficient was.81.

Mood

The International Positive and Negative Affect Schedule Short Form (I-PANAS-SF) developed by Thompson was used to gauge both initial daily negative mood and the subsequent positive mood. A total of 10 items were given to the participants to rate on a scale from 1 (very slightly or not at all) to 5 (extremely). Items that reflected positive moods included “alert” and “inspired,” while items that reflected negative moods included “upset.” The reliability coefficients for the positive and negative mood scales, respectively, were.89 and.86.

Online game usage

In this study, to measure the online game usage time of the participants over five days, the daily test questionnaire asked them whether they used online games before leaving school, and if so, to provide their online game usage time (hours).

Control variables

As gender may affect emotions (Chi et al., 2013; Johnson & Spector, 2007; Scott & Barnes, 2011), we included gender as a control variable. Age and daily positive mood were also taken into account.

Analysis

We estimated intra-class correlations (ICC 1) for the study variables (see Table 1 for details) based on our repeated measurements of individuals across time to determine the degree of nesting in the data. The intra-class correlations confirmed that these data violated the independence of error assumption by demonstrating that a significant percentage of the variance (between 61.86 and 66.12%, depending on the measure) was accounted for by individuals. We tested our hypotheses and used HLM to account for the repeated measures data. Because our hypothesized relationships resided at the within-person level of analysis, we person-mean centered every item such that relationships were only analyzed at the within-person level. In order to achieve this, we examined whether daily variations in one variable (relative to the individual’s average) predicted daily-levels of the outcome variable, after removing any variance due to between-person characteristics (such as socioeconomic status; Bolger & Laurenceau, 2013; Gabriel et al., 2018).

Table 1 Estimates of null models using hierarchical linear modeling
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Results

Table 2 shows the within-person correlations, computed by correlating the person mean-centered study variables, and Table 3 shows the between-person correlations using person means.

Table 2 Within-person correlations, means, and standard deviations
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Table 3 Between-person correlations, means, and standard deviations
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Common method variance analysis

The unrotated principal components method of Harman was used to analyze the common method variance (CMV; Podsakoff et al., 2003). Instead of a single component inside the three constructs, three factors with eigenvalues greater than 1.0 were sought. Given that the loading of the first component was less than 50% and that the three factors collectively accounted for two-thirds of the overall variation (74.58%), there was likely no evident general factor and no CMV flaws (Malhotra et al., 2006). To further explore the CMV of this study, we used the unmeasured latent method construct (ULMC) technique (Podsakoff et al., 2003). When comparing the difference in CFA from the model with the CMV factor and without it, the findings indicated that the two models are not substantially different (Δχ 2 = 16.439, Δdf = 11, p = 0.1256 > 0.1). Hence, CMV was not a critical issue in this study.

Measurement model

Using two uncentered within-person measures (negative mood, positive mood) and one uncentered between-person measure (i.e., hedonistic motivation), we conducted a multilevel confirmatory factor analysis. The findings demonstrated that the three-factor model was more effective in explaining the data. The three-factor model demonstrated a reasonable fit, χ2 = 221.012, df = 41, comparative fit index (CFI) = 0.952, Tucker-Lewis index (TLI) = 0.936, root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) = 0.074, and fit the data better than a two-factor model (that is, the survey items of negative mood and hedonistic motivation combined; χ2 = 1197.078, df = 43, CFI = 0.695, TLI = 0.610, RMSEA = 0.183, Δχ2 = 976.06, Δdf = 2, p < 0.001) and one-factor model (that is, all items loaded on the same factor; χ2 = 2616.616, df = 44, CFI = 0.321, TLI = 0.15, RMSEA = 0.271, Δχ2 = 2395.604, Δdf = 3, p < 0.001). Therefore, we conducted our hypothesis testing as anticipated (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1
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Model schema

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Hypotheses testing

Hypothesis 1 predicts that online game usage mediates the association between initial daily negative mood and subsequent positive mood. The bootstrapping approach was applied to ascertain whether online game usage mediates the relationship between initial daily negative mood and subsequent positive mood. The findings show a considerable overall impact of initial daily negative mood on subsequent positive mood was significant, indicating that the possibility of mediation existed. Bootstrapping analytical results (see Table 4) demonstrate that online game usage has a mediating effect between the initial daily negative mood and the subsequent positive mood, with the confidence interval [0.101, 0.175] of the indirect effect (0.137; 0.137 = 0.420 * 0.325) not including 0 and having a significant effect (p < 0.001). With a 95% bias-corrected confidence interval of [-0.102, 0.142], which includes zero, initial daily negative mood had no significant direct impact on subsequent positive mood. Online game usage completely mediates the relationship between initial daily negative mood and subsequent positive mood. In addition, the coefficient of determination (R2), which was judged to have small, medium, or large values of 0.02, 0.13, and 0.26, respectively, in this study, varied from 0.039 to 0.312, expressing explanatory power (Hair et al., 2012). We determined that the effect size (f2), which is equal to [R2 / (1-R2)], fell into the categories of minor and large effects, respectively, and varied from 0.041 to 0.453. In assessing the strength of the association between related variables, 0.02, 0.15, and 0.35 were determined to be modest, medium, and enormous effects, respectively (Ramli et al., 2019). Hypotheses 1 was therefore supported (Fig. 2).

Table 4 Result regarding mediation effects
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Fig. 2
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Online game usage fully mediates the relationship between initial daily negative mood and subsequent positive mood

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According to hypothesis 2, hedonic motivation will act as a moderator of the association between initial daily negative mood and online game usage. Hedonistic motivation, as indicated in Table 5, moderated the association between initial daily negative mood and online game usage (estimate = 0.299, S.E. = 0.037, p < 0.05). We put this on the graph in Fig. 3 to further investigate the manner of interaction between initial daily negative mood and online game usage. We used one standard deviation above and below the mean of hedonistic motivation, as advised by Aiken et al. (1991), to illustrate the correlation between initial daily negative mood and online game usage. Both high and low degrees of hedonistic motivation were taken into consideration. When we looked at the slope between initial daily negative mood and online game usage at a high level of hedonistic motivation, it was significantly positive. The slopes were still positive but significantly flattened when we examined the same connection with a low level of hedonistic motivation (see Fig. 3). In other words, high hedonistic motivation reinforces the positive connection between initial daily negative mood and online game usage. According to the findings, those with high levels of hedonistic motivation had a stronger positive relationship between their initial daily negative mood and their use of online games (simple slope = 0.696, p < 0.001) than those with low levels of hedonistic motivation (simple slope = 0.397, p < 0.001). Significant (t-value = 2.776; p < 0.05) slope differences between the groups with high and low hedonistic motivate were observed. As a result, the results indicated support for Hypotheses 2, suggesting that the effect of initial daily negative mood on online game usage does differ across high- and low-hedonistic motivation groups.

Table 5 Coefficients from multilevel path analysis with unstandardized
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Fig. 3
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Initial daily negative mood and online game usage: The moderating effect of hedonistic motivation

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According to hypothesis 3, hedonic motivation will act as a moderator of the association between online game usage and subsequent positive mood. Hedonistic motivation, as indicated in Table 5, moderated the association between online game usage and subsequent positive mood (estimate = 0.163, S.E. = 0.027, p < 0.001). We put this on the graph in Fig. 4 to further investigate the manner of interaction between online game usage and subsequent positive mood. We used one standard deviation above and below the mean of hedonistic motivation, as advised by Aiken et al. (1991), to illustrate the correlation between online game usage and subsequent positive mood. Both high and low degrees of hedonistic motivation were taken into consideration. When we looked at the slope between online game usage and subsequent positive mood at a high level of hedonistic motivation, it was significantly positive. The slopes were still positive but significantly flattened when we examined the same connection with a low level of hedonistic motivation (see Fig. 4). In other words, high hedonistic motivation reinforces the positive relationship between online game usage and subsequent positive mood. According to the findings, those with high levels of hedonistic motivation had a stronger positive relationship between online game usage and subsequent positive mood (simple slope = 0.327, p < 0.001) than those with low levels of hedonistic motivation (simple slope = 0.162, ns). Significant (t-value = 2.096; p = 0.037 < 0.05) slope differences between the groups with high and low hedonistic motivate were observed. As a result, the results indicated support for Hypotheses 3, suggesting that the effect of online game usage on subsequent positive mood does differ across high- and low-hedonistic motivation groups.

Fig. 4
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Online game usage and subsequent positive mood: The moderating effect of hedonistic motivation

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Discussion

This study mainly explores the relationship between initial daily negative mood, daily online game usage and subsequent positive mood, as well as the moderating effect of hedonistic motivation. Multi-level path analysis found the following: (1) initial daily negative mood can be relieved through the usage of online games, leading to improved subsequent positive mood; (2) hedonic motivation moderates the positive relationship between initial daily negative mood and online game usage; (3) hedonic motivation moderates the positive relationship between online game usage and subsequent positive mood. The implications of these findings will be discussed below:

Mediating effect of online game usage

The results of this study indicated that online game usage mediates the relationship between initial daily negative mood and subsequent positive mood. This result echoes that of Kosa and Uysal (2020) and Serrone (2012); games help regulate negative emotions and extend or enhance positive ones. From the perspective of attention shift, playing online games can help students temporarily escape difficulties and repair their negative moods. This study is based on Larsen’s (2000) theory of mood regulation. The results show that students play online games to relieve their negative mood and improve their subsequent mood. Therefore, online game usage can effectively help individuals repair their mood quickly. This result thus fits the framework of mood regulation theory: When students feel worse at school, they can improve their poor mood through increased usage of online games, allowing them to gain pleasure, socialize, and express their emotions. This study argues that online games not only serve as a diversion (for example: choosing favorite online games as self-reward, and transferring attention from negative emotions to the process of online games), but also afford players opportunities for interpersonal interaction (for example: playing online games with classmates to temporarily get away from heavy schoolwork), both of these resulting in mood repair. Thus, online games can help students improve their negative mood and enhance their subsequent positive mood.

Moderating effect of hedonic motivation on the relationship between initial negative mood and online game usage

This study found that hedonic motivation had a significant moderating effect on the relationship between initial daily negative mood and online game usage. This result echoes that of Huta et al. (2010); individuals perceive negative emotions, and hedonic motives may alleviate negative emotions by avoiding adverse events (e.g., academics pressure) and seeking out temporary positive events (e.g., playing games) (Huta et al., 2010). Therefore, the moderating effect of hedonic motives on mood occurs often after negative attitudes have been generated and achieved through avoidance or transference (Sun et al., 2023). Larsen (2000) stated that people tend to seek pleasure and avoid pain but that different personal characteristics shape their need for mood repair and the effects of mood repair behaviors. This study found that students with higher hedonic motivation used more online games when they experienced negative moods. Conversely, students with lower hedonic motivation were less likely to play online games. This may be because consumers with high hedonic motivation are more likely to divert themselves by playing online games, which allows them to relieve stress by playing different roles in the virtual online game world. This distraction from their troubles will allow the repair of their negative mood, so their online gameplay times will be greater than those with low hedonic motivation.

Moderating effect of hedonic motivation on the relationship between online game usage and subsequent positive mood

The results of this study indicated hedonic motivation had a significant moderating effect on the relationship between online game usage and subsequent positive mood. This result echoes that of Casal´o et al. (2017); that is, when technology brings pleasure and perceived enjoyment, it may shift users’ affective states, thus creating positive feelings that may increase satisfaction. Cognitive evaluation theory (Deci & Ryan, 1985) defines hedonic motivation as the driver of behavior related to achieving inherent satisfaction when performing a specific behavior. Amusement, escapism, excitement, enjoyment, and fantasy fulfillment often lead to experiential, multisensory, and/or emotional satisfaction (Babin et al., 1994; Whitley et al., 2018). As hedonic motivation increases students’ participation in online games, which in turn increases the time they spend playing online games, students with high hedonic motivation are more likely to lose self-control and become immersed in online games. Thus, the time spent playing online games increases, and the subsequent improvement in positive emotions is more significant. However, students with low hedonic motivation must balance enjoyment with achievement. Therefore, students with low hedonic motivation may limit their gameplay through self-control; thus, their online gameplay time will be less, and the subsequent improvement in positive emotions will be lower.

Theoretical contributions

This study used the HLM to test the moderating effect of hedonistic motivation. This study found that hedonic motivation moderates the positive relationship between negative mood and online game usage; and hedonic motivation moderates the positive relationship between online game usage and positive mood. Our data also suggest that playing online games is not necessarily associated with negative consequences and that, in some cases (e.g., the COVID-19 outbreak), it can be considered a valuable leisure activity. Online games should be used as a tool for emotional therapy and in the field of modern psychology, which is the value of this research.

Practical implications

The results show that the use of online games has a short-term and significant repairing effect on students’ mood; however, the long-term and extensive use of online games can cause additional burdens on the human body and even harm the players’ health. Thus, when properly used, games can help protect players’ health. However, there have been many cases of paralysis and sudden cardiac death from playing games all night. Therefore, this study did not encourage students to use online games to restore their mood indiscriminately.

According to reinforcement theory, irregular incentive programs can exert longer-lasting incentive effects than continuous incentive content, suggesting that teachers should provide incentives only when students are frustrated or otherwise in a bad mood. Online games can reward or incentivize students to eliminate their emotional dissatisfaction and boost their morale. Teachers can apply online game mechanics as educational processes and, through games, create a happy learning environment that guides children; thus, they experience more enthusiasm for learning while playing.

Games are the “electronic opium” of contemporary society. Parents should gain a deeper understanding of the mechanism of online game addiction and apply a healthy use of online games in their children’s education. Concurrently, the advantages and disadvantages of online games cannot be ignored, and online games can be properly applied to activate children’s brains without adversely affecting their academic performance.

Limitations and directions for further research

There are a few limitations on this study. First, we chose students from a single school as our sample, which puts a constraint on the generalizability of our findings to other groups. However, this method allowed us to evaluate the suggested theoretical framework in a more "controlled" environment, which improved the internal validity of our results. To evaluate their generalizability, future studies could compare our results with samples from different industries and professions. Second, our study might have some limitations due to the self-reported game usage time. Future studies might try to get around these problems by relying on physiological information like blood pressure and heartbeat. Third, because our sample consisted primarily of college students, caution should be exercised when extrapolating the findings to younger and older players as well as other age groups. Fourth, small male predominant sample population problem is limitation. To increase the generalizability of the tested model in the current study, future research should recruit people of other ages or with more female gender representation. Future study could use qualitative techniques to explain why young people play online games through observation and interviews, widening the area of research on online game play. This would allow for a deeper understanding of teens' desire to play online games. Future research could also look at how teenagers’ impulsivity, self-control, need for stimulation, and interactions with deviant peers affect their inclination to play online games.