Abstract
Asian scripts that are significantly different from Roman-derived alphabets usually impose difficulties in learning. Translanguaging has therefore been explored as a pedagogical tool for the language classroom, including Chinese. While learning Chinese characters is thought to be one of the main challenges for students learning Chinese as a foreign language (CFL), there seems to be a paucity of up-to-date research into the strategies that adult students use to learn this logographic script. Situated in the translanguaging framework, this study employs the think-aloud method to investigate strategies utilised by a group of CFL beginner adult learners when learning characters. Drawing on the results of five think-aloud exercises with CFL learners over five weeks, as well as follow-up tests of their long-term memory of Chinese characters, this study shows that a variety of translanguaging strategies were utilised during the process of learning Chinese characters, and that overall three types of translanguaging strategies were observed: a) embodiment, b) translanguaging resemblance, and c) hybrid. The proposed typology of translanguaging strategies contributes to the further application of translanguaging as a methodology. It also sheds light on future learning strategy research across different linguistic systems.
References
Bi, Yanchao, Zaizhu Han & Yumei Zhang. 2009. Reading does not depend on writing, even in Chinese. Neuropsychologia 47(4). 1193–1199. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2008.11.006.Search in Google Scholar
Blackledge, Adrian & Angela Creese. 2017. Translanguaging and the body. International Journal of Multilingualism 14(3). 250–268. https://doi.org/10.1080/14790718.2017.1315809.Search in Google Scholar
Budiu, Raluca & Kate Moran. 2021. How many participants for quantitative usability studies: A summary of sample-size recommendations. Nielsen Norman Group. https://www.nngroup.com/articles/summary-quant-sample-sizes/ (accessed 30 March 2022).Search in Google Scholar
Canagarajah, Suresh. 2018. Translingual practice as spatial repertoires: Expanding the paradigm beyond structuralist orientations. Applied Linguistics 39(1). 31–54. https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/amx041.Search in Google Scholar
Cotton, Deborah & Karen Gresty. 2006. Reflecting on the think-aloud method for evaluating e-learning. British Journal of Educational Technology 37(1). 45–54. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8535.2005.00521.x.Search in Google Scholar
Eccles, David W. & Güler Arsal. 2017. The think aloud method: What is it and how do I use it? Qualitative Research in Sport, Exercise and Health 9(4). 514–531. https://doi.org/10.1080/2159676X.2017.1331501.Search in Google Scholar
Ericsson, Karl Anders & Herbert Alexander Simon. 1993. Protocol analysis: Verbal reports as data, Revised edn. Cambridge, MA, USA: A Bradford Book.10.7551/mitpress/5657.001.0001Search in Google Scholar
Garcia, Ofelia & Wei Li. 2014. Translanguaging: Language, bilingualism and education. London: Palgrave Macmillan.10.1057/9781137385765Search in Google Scholar
Grenfell, Michael & Vee Harris. 2015. Memorisation strategies and the adolescent learner of Mandarin Chinese as a foreign language. Linguistics and Education 31. 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.linged.2015.04.002.Search in Google Scholar
Guan, Connie Qun, Ying Liu, Derek Ho Leung Chan, Feifei Ye & Charles A. Perfetti. 2011. Writing strengthens orthography and alphabetic-coding strengthens phonology in learning to read Chinese. Journal of Educational Psychology 103(3). 509–522. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0023730.Search in Google Scholar
Hornberger, Nancy H. & Holly Link. 2012. Translanguaging and transnational literacies in multilingual classrooms: A biliteracy lens. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism 15(3). 261–278. https://doi.org/10.1080/13670050.2012.658016.Search in Google Scholar
Jiang, Xiaoli & Andrew D. Cohen. 2012. A critical review of research on strategies in learning Chinese as both a second and foreign language. Studies in Second Language Learning and Teaching 2(1). 9. https://doi.org/10.14746/ssllt.2012.2.1.2.Search in Google Scholar
de Jong, Ton. 2005. Problem-solving methodologies. In Kimberly Kempf-Leonard (ed.), Encyclopedia of social measurement, 171–177. New York: Elsevier.10.1016/B0-12-369398-5/00150-XSearch in Google Scholar
Kan, Qian, Nathaniel Owen & Stephen Bax. 2018. Researching mobile-assisted Chinese-character learning strategies among adult distance learners. Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching 12(1). 56–71. https://doi.org/10.1080/17501229.2018.1418633.Search in Google Scholar
Kim, Kyung Hee. 2005. Learning from each other: Creativity in East Asian and American education. Creativity Research Journal 17(4). 337–347. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15326934crj1704_5.Search in Google Scholar
Knell, Ellen & Hai-I Nancy West. 2017. To delay or not to delay: The timing of Chinese character instruction for secondary learners. Foreign Language Annals 50(3). 519–532. https://doi.org/10.1111/flan.12281.Search in Google Scholar
Kubler, Cornelius. 2020. Considerations in preparing pedagogical materials for adult native English-speaking learners of Chinese as a second/foreign language. In Chris Shei, Monica McLellan Zikpi & Der-Lin Chao (eds.), The Routledge handbook of Chinese language teaching, 321–335. London and New York: Routledge.10.4324/9781315104652-21Search in Google Scholar
Kusters, Annelies, Massimiliano Spotti, Ruth Swanwick & Elina Tapio. 2017. Beyond languages, beyond modalities: Transforming the study of semiotic repertoires. International Journal of Multilingualism 14(3). 219–232. https://doi.org/10.1080/14790718.2017.1321651.Search in Google Scholar
Lau, Sunny Man Chu. 2020. Translanguaging as transmediation: Embodied critical literacy engagements in a French-English bilingual classroom. Australian Journal of Applied Linguistics 3(1). 42–59. https://doi.org/10.29140/ajal.v3n1.299.Search in Google Scholar
Li, Michael. 2020. A systematic review of the research on Chinese character teaching and learning. Frontiers of Education in China 15(1). 39–72. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11516-020-0003-y.Search in Google Scholar
Lin, Angel. 2015. Egalitarian bi/multilingualism and trans-semiotizing in a global world. In The handbook of bilingual and multilingual education, 19–37. West Sussex: John Wiley & Sons.10.1002/9781118533406.ch2Search in Google Scholar
Lin, Angel M. Y. 2019. Theories of trans/languaging and trans-semiotizing: Implications for content-based education classrooms. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism 22(1). 5–16. https://doi.org/10.1080/13670050.2018.1515175.Search in Google Scholar
Liu, Han-Chin. 2021. Using eye-tracking technology to explore the impact of instructional multimedia on CFL learners’ Chinese character recognition. The Asia-Pacific Education Researcher 30(1). 33–46. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40299-020-00512-2.Search in Google Scholar
Liu, Xun. 2010. New practical Chinese reader vol. 1 – textbook, 3rd edn. Rödermark: Beijing Language & Culture University Press, China.Search in Google Scholar
Li, Wei. 2011. Moment analysis and translanguaging space: Discursive construction of identities by multilingual Chinese youth in Britain. Journal of Pragmatics 43(5). 1222–1235. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pragma.2010.07.035.Search in Google Scholar
Li, Wei. 2018. Translanguaging as a practical theory of language. Applied Linguistics 39(1). 9–30. https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/amx039.Search in Google Scholar
Li, Wei. 2022. Translanguaging as method. Research Methods in Applied Linguistics 1(3). 1–4. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rmal.2022.100026.Search in Google Scholar
Li, Wei & Hua Zhu. 2013. Translanguaging identities and ideologies: Creating transnational space through flexible multilingual practices amongst Chinese university students in the UK. Applied Linguistics 34(5). 516–535. https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/amt022.Search in Google Scholar
Li, Wei & Wing Yee (Jenifer) Ho. 2018. Language learning Sans Frontiers: A translanguaging view. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics 38. 33–59. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0267190518000053.Search in Google Scholar
Lu, Ming-Tsan Pierre. 2011. The effect of instructional embodiment designs on Chinese language learning: The use of embodied animation for beginning learners of Chinese characters. New York: Columbia University PhD thesis. Available at: http://academiccommons.columbia.edu/catalog/ac:132065.Search in Google Scholar
Lu, Ming-Tsan Pierre, Gregory L. HallmanJr. & John B. Black. 2013. Chinese character learning: Using embodied animations in initial stages. Journal of Technology and Chinese Language Teaching 4(2). 1–24.Search in Google Scholar
Lu, Rugang. 2020. Multimodal pedagogy and Chinese visual arts in TCFL classrooms. In Chris Shei, Monica E. McLellan Zikpi & Der-Lin Chao (eds.), The Routledge handbook of Chinese language teaching, 476–492. Oxon: Routledge.10.4324/9781315104652-30Search in Google Scholar
Lyu, Boning, Chun Lai, Chin-Hsi Lin & Yang Gong. 2021. Comparison studies of typing and handwriting in Chinese language learning: A synthetic review. International Journal of Educational Research 106. 101740. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijer.2021.101740.Search in Google Scholar
O’Maley, Michael J. & Anna Uhl Chamot. 1990. Learning strategies in second language acquisition. New York: Cambridge University Press.10.1017/CBO9781139524490Search in Google Scholar
Oxford, Rebecca 1990. Language learning strategies: What every teacher should know. New York: Newbury House.Search in Google Scholar
Pennycook, Alastair. 2016. Mobile times, mobile terms: The trans-super-poly-metro movement. In Nikolas Coupland (ed.), Sociolinguistics, 201–216. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.10.1017/CBO9781107449787.010Search in Google Scholar
Pennycook, Alastair. 2017. Translanguaging and semiotic assemblages. International Journal of Multilingualism 14(3). 269–282. https://doi.org/10.1080/14790718.2017.1315810.Search in Google Scholar
QSR International. 2022. World-class data analysis software for academic research and statistics: NVivo. https://www.qsrinternational.com/nvivo-qualitative-data-analysis-software/about/nvivo/who-its-for/academia (accessed 30 March 2022).Search in Google Scholar
Randall, Mick. 2007. Memory, psychology and second language learning. lllt.19. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company. https://benjamins.com/catalog/lllt.19 (accessed 30 March 2022).10.1075/lllt.19Search in Google Scholar
Shen, Helen H. 2005. An investigation of Chinese-character learning strategies among non-native speakers of Chinese. System 33(1). 49–68. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2004.11.001.Search in Google Scholar
Shen, Helen H. 2013. Chinese L2 literacy development: Cognitive characteristics, learning strategies, and pedagogical interventions. Language and Linguistics Compass 7(7). 371–387. https://doi.org/10.1111/lnc3.12034.Search in Google Scholar
Shen, Helen H. & Chuanren Ke. 2007. Radical awareness and word acquisition among nonnative learners of Chinese. The Modern Language Journal 91(1). 97–111. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4781.2007.00511.x.Search in Google Scholar
Singleton, David & Colin J. Flynn. 2021. Translanguaging: A pedagogical concept that went wandering. International Multilingual Research Journal 16. 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1080/19313152.2021.1985692.Search in Google Scholar
Sung, Ko-Yin & Hsiao-Ping Wu. 2011. Factors influencing the learning of Chinese characters. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism 14(6). 683–700. https://doi.org/10.1080/13670050.2011.571658.Search in Google Scholar
Tan, Ai-Girl. 2001. Singaporean teachers’ perception of activities useful for fostering creativity. The Journal of Creative Behavior 35(2). 131–148. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.2162-6057.2001.tb01226.x.Search in Google Scholar
Wang, Danping. 2016. Translanguaging in Chinese foreign language classrooms: Students and teachers’ attitudes and practices. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism 22. 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1080/13670050.2016.1231773.Search in Google Scholar
Wang, Jinghui, Ken Spencer & Minjie Xing. 2009. Metacognitive beliefs and strategies in learning Chinese as a foreign language. System 37(1). 46–56. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2008.05.001.Search in Google Scholar
Wang, Junju & Jia Lin. 2019. Traditional Chinese views on education as perceived by international students in China: International student attitudes and understandings. Journal of Studies in International Education 23(2). 195–216. https://doi.org/10.1177/1028315318797356.Search in Google Scholar
Wang, Ying & Catherine McBride. 2017. Beyond copying: A comparison of multi-component interventions on Chinese early literacy skills. International Journal of Behavioral Development 41(3). 380–389. https://doi.org/10.1177/0165025416637212.Search in Google Scholar
Winke, Paula M. & Rebekha Abbuhl. 2007. Taking a closer look at vocabulary learning strategies: A case study of a Chinese foreign language class. Foreign Language Annals 40(4). 697–712. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1944-9720.2007.tb02888.x.Search in Google Scholar
Xu, Yi, Li Jin, Elizabeth Deifell & Katie Angus. 2021. Facilitating technology-based character learning in emergency remote teaching. Foreign Language Annals 55. 1–26. https://doi.org/10.1111/flan.12541.Search in Google Scholar
Ye, Lijuan. 2013. Shall we delay teaching characters in teaching Chinese as a foreign language? Foreign Language Annals 46(4). 610–627. https://doi.org/10.1111/flan.12049.Search in Google Scholar
Yu, Xia. 2018. The impact of traditional approach to Chinese literacy education on English language teaching. In 2018 international conference on education, economics and social science (ICEESS 2018), 111–114. Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Atlantis Press.10.2991/iceess-18.2018.28Search in Google Scholar
Zhang, Qi, Caitríona Osborne, Lijie Shao & Mei Lin. 2020. A translanguaging perspective on medium of instruction in the CFL classroom. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development 43. 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1080/01434632.2020.1737089.Search in Google Scholar
Zhang, Qi & Ronan G. Reilly. 2015. Writing to read: The case of Chinese. PACLIC. Available at: https://aclanthology.org/Y15-1039.pdf.Search in Google Scholar
Zheng, Bingjie. 2021a. Translanguaging in a Chinese immersion classroom: An ecological examination of instructional discourses. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism 24(9). 1324–1339. https://doi.org/10.1080/13670050.2018.1561642.Search in Google Scholar
Zheng, Bingjie. 2021b. Translanguaging and semiotic repertoires. In A transdisciplinary lens for bilingual education, 1st edn., 171–190. New York: Routledge.10.4324/9781003152194-11Search in Google Scholar
© 2022 Walter de Gruyter GmbH, Berlin/Boston