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Textural and compositional constraints on the origin, thermal history, and REE mobility in the Lakeh Siah iron oxide-apatite deposit—NE Bafq, Iran

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Abstract

The Lakeh Siah iron oxide-apatite deposit occurs within the Cambrian succession of volcanic tuffs and rhyolitic rocks intercalated with dolomites, dolomitic limestones, and evaporites. Magnetite is the dominant ore mineral, accompanied by apatite, amphibole, diopside, calcite, and andradite garnet. Apatite, allanite, and titanite are the main rare earth element (REE)-bearing minerals. Concentrations of minor elements in magnetite and apatite are consistent with those in the magmatic Kiruna-type IOA deposits. The magmatic stage in the Lakeh Siah deposit is recorded in magnetite-rutile symplectites pseudomorphozing pseudobrookite and replaced by titanite-rutile ± ilmenite ± magnetite, titanite + rutile, and finally REE-rich titanite. The pseudobrookite with 28–42 mol% FeTi2O5 was either a primary magmatic mineral or a product of hemoilmenite breakdown at temperatures higher than 810 °C. The titanite-rutile-ilmenite-magnetite symplectites originated between 475 and 700 °C and oxygen fugacities 1.6–1.9 logfO2 units below the hematite-magnetite buffer. Fluorotremolite associated with diopside and fluorapatite crystallized at temperatures between 710 and 780 °C, and high oxygen fugacities, up to 6 logfO2 units above NNO buffer. The oxidizing conditions are reflected in increased ferric iron contents (Fe3+/Fe2+ molar ratios > 1.7) in tremolite, contrasting with the negligible Fe3+ in superimposed actinolite. Hydrothermal alteration of the primary magmatic, REE-bearing fluorapatite resulted in the reprecipitation of REE-depleted fluorapatite, monazite-(Ce), and arsenian xenotime. Epidote-ferriepidote and allanite-ferriallanite with up to 26 wt% REE (0.98 apfu) were also replaced by an unidentified Y–Ce–Nd–concentrating Ca,Fe,REE-hydrosilicate, containing up to 39 wt% Y + REE. Low yttrium contents in the neoformed monazite (< 0.02 apfu) indicate crystallization temperatures below 200 °C, but the monazite-xenotime thermometer based on Gd partitioning returns up to 700 °C. Breakdown textures in magnetite and apatite, increased sulfate contents in monazite (up to 1.5 wt% SO3), and the presence of anhydrite-, calcite-, hematite-, and halite-bearing aqueous inclusions with variable phase ratios in the neoformed apatite reveal metasomatism induced by the interaction with heterogeneous, chloride-sulfate-carbonate brines capable of transporting rare earth elements. The brines were probably mobilized from evaporite-bearing sedimentary strata during the Cambrian volcanism and possibly also during superimposed intrusive episodes coincidental with Silurian and Triassic extension-related magmatism.

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All data generated or analysed during this study are included in this published article (and its supplementary information files).

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Acknowledgements

This paper is part of the Ph.D. thesis of the first author at the University of Bu-Ali Sina, Hamedan, Iran. The authors are very grateful to Dr. Patrik Konečný from the Geological Survey of Slovakia, Bratislava, for electron probe microanalyses funded by the VEGA project 1/0013/22. Raman spectroscopic facility at the Slovak Academy of Sciences in Bratislava was funded by the European Research Development Fund project ITMS-26210120013, “Completing the Technical Infrastructure for Research in Geodynamic Processes and Global Changes in the Earth History.” The manuscript strongly benefited from critical comments from Drs. Hector Lamadrid and Wyan Bain and handling editor Matthew Steele-MacInnis.

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  1. Department of Geology, Faculty of Sciences, Bu-Ali Sina University, Hamedan, Iran

    Meisam Gholipoor, Mehrdad Barati & Ebrahim Tale Fazel

  2. Earth Science Institute, Slovak Academy of Sciences, Bratislava, Slovakia

    Vratislav Hurai

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Gholipoor, M., Barati, M., Tale Fazel, E. et al. Textural and compositional constraints on the origin, thermal history, and REE mobility in the Lakeh Siah iron oxide-apatite deposit—NE Bafq, Iran. Miner Deposita 58, 963–986 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00126-023-01163-1

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