Abstract
Higher education has been associated with better social and economic outcomes for foster youth transitioning to adulthood. Informal mentorship is helpful in supporting young people to and through higher education. The present study uses an established typology of informal mentoring, core and capital, to explore the characteristics of these mentoring relationships over time. Specifically, the present study answers two questions: (1) Are core mentoring relationships more stable over time? and (2) Do capital mentoring relationships for foster youth students promote relationships with other capital mentors? Survey participants were recruited predominantly through community-based child welfare organizations specifically for foster care alumni and campus support programs at 4-year universities. Youth completed interviews over three waves that asked questions on what supportive people they had in their lives. While core mentors are more stable over time, there was no relationship between having capital mentors and promoting more informal mentoring relationships. Implications around the importance of social capital for these young people and how informal mentors can act as a mobilized form of social capital are discussed.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Ahrens, K. R., DuBois, D., Garrison, M., Spencer, R., Richardson, L. P., & Lozano, P. (2011). Qualitative exploration of relationships with important non-parental adults in the lives of youth in foster care. Children and Youth Services Review, 33, 1012–1033. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2011.01.006
Berger, L. M., Cancian, M., Cuesta, L., & Noyes, J. L. (2016). Families at the intersection of the criminal justice and child protective services systems. The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 665(1), 171–194.
Brisson, D. (2009). Testing the relationship of formal bonding, informal bonding, and formal bridging social capital on key outcomes for families in low-income neighborhoods. Journal of Sociology & Social Welfare, 36(1), 167–183.
Chang, E. S., Greenberger, E., Chen, C., Heckhausen, J., & Farrugia, S. P. (2010). Nonparental adults as social resources in the transition to adulthood. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 20(4), 1065–1082. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1532-7795.2010.00662.x
Children’s Bureau. (2021). Foster care statistics 2019. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Administration for Children and Families. https://www.childwelfare.gov/pubPDFs/foster.pdf
Claridge, T. (2018). Functions of social capital—Bonding, bridging, linking. Social Capital Research, 20, 1–7.
Cutuli, J. J., Goerge, R. M., Coulton, C., Schretzman, M., Crampton, D., Charvat, B. J., Lalich, N., Raithel, J. A., Gacitua, C., & Lee, E. L. (2016). From foster care to juvenile justice: Exploring characteristics of youth in three cities. Children and Youth Services Review, 67, 84–94. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2016.06.001
Deutsch, N. L., Mauer, V. A., Johnson, H. E., Grabowska, A. A., & Arbeit, M. R. (2020). “[My counselor] knows stuff about me, but [my natural mentor] actually knows me”: Distinguishing characteristics of youth’s natural mentoring relationships. Children and Youth Services Review, 111, 104879. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2020.104879
Dill, L. J., & Ozer, E. J. (2019). “The hook-up”: How youth-serving organizations facilitate network-based social capital for urban youth of color. Journal of Community Psychology, 47, 1614–1628. https://doi.org/10.1002/jcop.22216
Dominguez, S., & Watkins, C. (2003). Creating network for survival and mobility: Social capital among African-American and Latin-American low-income mothers. Social Problems, 50(1), 111–135. https://doi.org/10.1525/sp.2003.50.1.111
DuBois, D. L., & Silverthorn, N. (2005). Characteristics of natural mentoring relationships and adolescent adjustment: Evidence from a national study. Journal of Primary Prevention, 26(2), 69–92. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10935-005-1832-4
Franco, J., & Durdella, N. (2018). The influence of social and family backgrounds on college transition experiences of foster youth. New Directions for Community Colleges, 2018(181), 69–80. https://doi.org/10.1002/cc.20293
Gowdy, G., & Hogan, S. (2021). Informal mentoring among foster youth entering higher education. Children and Youth Services Review, 120, 105716. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2020.105716
Gowdy, G., & Spencer, R. (2021). It’s who you know that matters: Identifying which type of informal mentor is most likely to promote economic mobility for vulnerable youth. The Journal of Primary Prevention, 42(3), 217–238. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10935-021-00630-7
Green, H., & Fletcher, L. (2003). Social Capital Harmonised Question Set: A guide to questions for use in the measurement of social capital. Social and Vital Statistics Division, Office for National Statistics.
Grootaert, C., Narayan, D., Jones, V. N., & Woolcock, M. (2004). Measuring social capital: An integrated questionnaire. World Bank Working Paper No. 18. World Bank. https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/15033
Huang, H., Fernandez, S., Rhoden, M., & Joseph, R. (2018). Serving former foster youth and homeless students in college. Journal of Social Service Research, 44(2), 209–222. https://doi.org/10.1080/01488376.2018.1441096
Hurd, N. M., & Sellers, R. M. (2013). Black adolescents’ relationships with natural mentors: Associations with academic engagement via social and emotional development. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 19(1), 76–85. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0031095
Jaffee, S. R., Ambler, A., Merrick, M., Goldman-Mellor, S., Odgers, C. L., Fisher, H. L., Danese, A., & Arseneault, L. (2018). Childhood maltreatment predicts poor economic and educational outcomes in the transition to adulthood. American Journal of Public Health, 108(9), 1142–1147. https://doi.org/10.2105/ajph.2018.304587
Katz, C. C., & Geiger, J. M. (2020). ‘We need that person that doesn’t give up on us’: The role of social support in the pursuit of post-secondary education for youth with foster care experience who are transition-aged. Child Welfare, 97(6), 145–164.
Landers, A. L., Carrese, D. H., & Spath, R. (2019). A decade in review of trends in social work literature: The link between poverty and child maltreatment in the United States. Child Welfare, 97(4), 65–96.
Liao, C. L., & Sanchez, B. (2016). Mentoring relationship quality profiles and their association with urban, low-income youth’s academic outcomes. Youth & Society, 51(4), 443–462. https://doi.org/10.1177/0044118x16668058
Lin, N. (2001). Social capital: A theory of social structure and action. Cambridge University Press.
Lukasiewicz, K., Bahar, O. S., Ali, S., Gopalan, P., Parker, G., Hawkins, R., McKay, M., & Walker, R. (2019). Getting by in New York City: Bonding, bridging and linking capital in poverty-impacted neighborhoods. City & Community, 18(1), 280–301. https://doi.org/10.1111/cico.12373
Marion, E., Paulsen, V., & Goyette, M. (2017). Relationships matter: Understanding the role and impact of social networks at the edge of transition to adulthood from care. Child and Adolescent Social Work Journal, 34, 573–582. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10560-017-0494-4
Martin-West, S. (2019). The role of social support as a moderator of housing instability in single mother and two-parent households. Social Work Research, 43(1), 31–42. https://doi.org/10.1093/swr/svy028
McDonnell, R. P., Soricone, L., & Sheen, M. (2014). Promoting persistence through comprehensive student supports. Jobs for the Future. http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED561305.pdf
Meltzer, A., Muir, K., & Craig, L. (2018). The role of trusted adults in young people’s social and economic lives. Youth & Society, 50(5), 575–592. https://doi.org/10.1177/0044118X16637610
Miranda-Chan, T., Fruiht, V., Dubon, V., & Wray-Lake, L. (2016). The functions and longitudinal outcomes of adolescents’ naturally occurring mentorships. American Journal of Community Psychology, 57(1–2), 47–59. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajcp.12031
Munson, M., & McMillen, J. (2009). Natural mentoring and psychosocial outcomes among older youth transitioning from foster care. Children and Youth Services Review, 31(1), 104–111. https://doi.org/10.1016/2Fj.childyouth.2008.06.003
Norusis, M. (2008). SPSS 160 statistical procedures companion. Prentice Hall.
Okpych, N. J., & Courtney, M. E. (2017). Who goes to college? Social capital and other predictors of college enrollment for foster-care youth. Journal of the Society for Social Work and Research, 8(4), 563–593. https://doi.org/10.1086/694897
Rapkin, B. D., & Luke, D. A. (1993). Cluster analysis in community research: Epistemology and practice. American Journal of Community Psychology, 21, 247–277. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00941623
Raposa, E. B., Rhodes, J., Stams, G. J. J. M., Card, N., Burton, S., Schwartz, S., Sykes, L. A. Y., Kanchewa, S., Kupersmidt, J., & Hussain, S. (2019). The effects of youth mentoring programs: A meta-analysis of outcomes studies. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 48(3), 423–443. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-019-00982-8
Salazar, A. M. (2013). The value of a college degree for foster care alumni: Comparisons with general population samples. Social Work, 58(2), 139–150. https://doi.org/10.1093/sw/swt014
Scales, P. C., Boat, A., & Pekel, K. (2020). Defining and measuring social capital for young people: A practical review of the literature on resource-full relationships. Search Institute. https://www.search-institute.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/05/SOCAP-Lit-Review.pdf
Schwartz, S. E., Kanchewa, S. S., Rhodes, J. E., Gowdy, G., Stark, A. M., Horn, J. P., Parnes, M., & Spencer, R. (2018). “I’m having a little struggle with this, can you help me out?”: Examining impacts and processes of a social capital intervention for first-generation college students. American Journal of Community Psychology, 61(1–2), 166–178. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajcp.12206
Scott, M. E., Moore, K. A., Hawkins, A. J., Malm, K., & Beltz, M. (2012). Putting youth relationship education on the child welfare agenda: Findings from a research and evaluation review. Child Trends. https://www.childtrends.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/04/2012-46RelationshipEducExecSummary1.pdf
Shah, M. F., Liu, Q., Mark Eddy, J., Barkan, S., Marshall, D., Mancuso, D., Lucenko, B., & Huber, A. (2017). Predicting homelessness among emerging adults aging out of foster care. American Journal of Community Psychology, 60(1–2), 33–43. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajcp.12098
Skobba, K., Moorman, D., & Meyers, D. (2021). The cost of early independence: Unmet material needs among college students with homelessness or foster care histories. Journal of Adolescent Research. https://doi.org/10.1177/07435584211014831
Spencer, R. (2007). Naturally occurring mentoring relationships involving youth. In T. D. Allen & L. T. Eby (Eds.), Handbook of mentoring: A multiple perspectives approach (pp. 99–117). Blackwell Publishing.
Spencer, R., Basualdo-Delmonico, A., Walsh, J., & Drew, A. L. (2017). Breaking up is hard to do: A qualitative interview study of how and why youth mentoring relationships end. Youth & Society, 49(4), 438–460. https://doi.org/10.1177/0044118X14535416
Spencer, R., Tugenberg, T., Ocean, M., Schwartz, S. E. O., & Rhodes, J. E. (2016). “Somebody who was on my side”: A qualitative examination of youth initiated mentoring. Youth and Society, 48(3), 402–424. https://doi.org/10.1177/0044118X13495053
Sterrett, E., Jones, D., McKee, L., & Kincaid, C. (2011). Supportive non-parental adults and adolescent psychosocial functioning: Using social support as a theoretical framework. American Journal of Community Psychology, 48(3–4), 284–295. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10464-011-9429-y
Sykes, B. L., Gioviano, J., & Piquero, A. R. (2014). Mentoring marginality: The role of informal mentors in the lives of socially disadvantaged adolescents. Race and Justice, 4(3), 246–269. https://doi.org/10.1177/2F2153368714542656
Thompson, A. E., & Greeson, J. K. P. (2017). Prosocial activities and natural mentoring among youth at risk of aging out of foster care. Journal for the Society of Social Work and Research, 8(3), 421–440. https://doi.org/10.1086/693119
Thompson, A. E., Greeson, J. K., & Brunsink, A. M. (2016). Natural mentoring among older youth in and aging out of foster care: A systematic review. Children and Youth Services Review, 61, 40–50. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2015.12.006
Tolan, P. H., Henry, D. B., Schoeny, M. S., Lovegrove, P., & Nichols, E. (2014). Mentoring programs to affect delinquency and associated outcomes of youth at risk: A comprehensive meta-analytic review. Journal of Experimental Criminology, 10, 179–206. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11292-013-9181-4
Van der Gaag, M., & Webber, M. (2008). Measurement of individual social capital: Questions, instruments, and measures. In I. Kawachi, S. V. Subramanian, & D. Kim (Eds.), Social capital and health. Springer.
Woolcock, M. (1998). Social capital and economic development: Toward a theoretical synthesis and policy framework. Theory and Society, 27, 151–208. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1006884930135
Zhang, S., Anderson, S. G., & Zhan, M. (2011). The differentiated impact of bridging and bonding social capital on economic well-being: An individual level perspective. Journal of Sociology & Social Welfare, 38(1), 119–142.
Zimmerman, M. A., Bingenheimer, J. B., & Behrendt, D. E. (2005). Informal mentoring relationships. In D. L. DuBois & M. J. Karcher (Eds.), Handbook of youth mentoring (pp. 143–157). Sage.
Zinn, A., Palmer, A. N., & Nam, E. (2017). The predictors of perceived social support among former foster youth. Child Abuse & Neglect, 72, 172–183. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2017.07.015
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that the authors have no conflict of interest.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Gowdy, G., Hogan, S., Roosevelt, K. et al. Informal Mentoring for Foster Youth Students: Core and Capital Mentors Over Time. Child Adolesc Soc Work J 40, 221–236 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10560-022-00899-5
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10560-022-00899-5