Effects of natural habitat composition and configuration, environment and agricultural input on soybean and maize yields in Argentina
Introduction
Agricultural expansion and conventional land-use intensification have led to landscape homogenization and global biodiversity loss (Diaz et al., 2019, Martin et al., 2019, Seppelt et al., 2014). Decreases of biodiversity in agricultural landscapes have also resulted in a decline in ecosystem services supporting sustainable crop production (Tscharntke et al., 2005). Such decreases are not surprising, since conventional intensification has largely ignored the positive role of biodiversity in crop production systems (Seppelt et al., 2020).
Over the last few years, the establishment and conservation of natural habitat in agricultural landscapes have been promoted under the paradigm of ecological intensification (Garibaldi et al., 2019). The presence of natural areas in agroecosystems is expected to create win-win situations for biodiversity and agriculture through the ecosystem functions these areas provide for crops (Garibaldi et al., 2020). Some of the most important ecosystem functions in this context are generated by mobile species and their interactions with crops (Kremen et al., 2007). The importance of migration between natural and agricultural habitats has been shown for multiple crop types and ecosystem functions such as pollination (Ricketts et al., 2008) and biological pest control (Karp et al., 2018, Tscharntke et al., 2016). However, the effect of the composition and configuration of natural habitat on field crop yield is still little understood.
Farmers are responsible for managing most of the world´s populated land (Ramankutty et al., 2008). Improved knowledge of on-farm benefits of changes in the composition and configuration of natural habitat on a landscape scale could have worldwide environmental implications. For example, previous studies showed that both soybean and maize, two of the most widely grown crops, benefit from natural habitat as it promotes the natural enemies of pests (Gonzalez et al., 2020, Santana Sousa et al., 2012). Additionally, soybean yields are also increased through more effective pollination (Garibaldi et al., 2021, Monasterolo et al., 2015).
Our main objective was to assess the relationships between the environment, land management, landscape structure and yields of soybean and maize in Argentina. We targeted soybean and maize crops because, globally, 120.5 and 197.2 million ha were harvested of these crops, respectively, during 2019 (Anon, 2019). Argentina accounted for 14% of the global soybean and 4% of the global maize production area in that year (Anon, 2019). To understand the relationships between landscape, environmental and management variables, we first evaluated how the landscape metrics (percentage of natural habitat and edge density) were distributed with regard to agricultural input and environmental potential for crop production. We then assessed the main drivers of crop yield and evaluated whether landscape metrics could account for the spatial variation in yield that was not explained by management and environmental factors. This information would indicate whether the ecosystem services provided by natural habitat substantially impact yields. In total, we gathered data from 2858 soybean and 1548 maize fields.
Section snippets
Data collection
Data was collected using an extensive, standardized protocol co-developed with the Regional Consortiums for Agricultural Experimentation (CREA) through the DAT CREA project. Regional Consortiums for Agricultural Experimentation is a non-profit civil association integrated and directed by agricultural entrepreneurs (>1800 farms) who meet in groups to share experiences and knowledge (https://www.crea.org.ar/). In total, the assessed area covered more than 324,000 ha of agricultural land
Results
During the 2018–2019 growing season, we collected data from 2858 soybean and 1548 maize fields across almost all extensive crop regions of Argentina (Fig. 1). Average single field size was 70.83 ha for soybean and 63.90 ha for maize; maximum field sizes were 500 and 360 ha, respectively. Landscapes with soybean fields were characterized by an average of 36.9% natural habitat and an edge density of 33.6 m ha-1. Maize field landscapes had an average of 35.3% natural habitat and 31.3 m ha-1 edge
Discussion
In this study, we gathered data from hundreds of fields in Argentina to assess the relationships between the environment, land management, landscape structure and yields. Due to the complex correlation structure between environmental, management and landscape variables, we implemented a three-step approach. We found that fields with greater agricultural input negatively correlated with the percentage of natural habitat. Land with higher environmental potential for grain production (i.e., field
Conclusions
In this paper, we covered almost all major field-crop regions of Argentina, where soybean and maize production represents one of the country’s main sources of income. Agricultural input was negatively correlated with natural habitat. Environmental and management variables explained yield variability in both crops, and yield models considering these effects satisfactorily described the large spatial variation of yield in the study regions. Neither percentage of natural habitat nor edge density
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgments
We thank Dr. Facundo Oddi for previous discussions, Dr. Juan Aguero for reading the manuscript in previous versions and CREA research and development unit for valuable feedback during the research process. Our thanks also go to two anonymous reviewers that made valuable comments on the manuscript, and to the Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas - Argentina, and the Asociación Argentina de Consorcios Regionales de Experimentación Agrícola for co-funding a scholarship to the
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