Skip to main content

Thank you for visiting nature.com. You are using a browser version with limited support for CSS. To obtain the best experience, we recommend you use a more up to date browser (or turn off compatibility mode in Internet Explorer). In the meantime, to ensure continued support, we are displaying the site without styles and JavaScript.

  • Analysis
  • Published:

The judicious use of finite marine resources can sustain Atlantic salmon (salmo salar) aquaculture to 2100 and beyond

Nature Food volume 3, pages 644–649 (2022)Cite this article

Subjects

Abstract

The production of farmed Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) is currently linked to finite marine resources, particularly fish oil (FO) and fish meal (FM). Understanding this relationship in a quantitative manner is imperative if this critical balance is to be maintained within sustainable limits as the industry grows. Here we project the potential production and associated growth of the Atlantic salmon aquaculture industry on the basis of a variety of FO and FM utilization scenarios in aquafeed. Reducing FO and FM dietary inclusion to 3% each could permit production growth of 2% per year until the turn of the century (2097 and beyond 2100, respectively), independent of a host of alternatives now being utilized—with three portions of salmon per week providing almost all the recommended weekly long-chain omega-3 fatty acids for human intake. The Atlantic salmon industry’s positive annual growth can continue in an era of finite marine resource availability—without the need for additional finite marine resource inputs.

This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution

Access options

Buy this article

  • Purchase on Springer Link
  • Instant access to full article PDF
Buy now

Prices may be subject to local taxes which are calculated during checkout

Fig. 1: Atlantic salmon production potential under different FO and FM use scenarios.
Fig. 2: FF production and utilization.
Fig. 3: Total production and edible yield of Atlantic salmon and FF.
Fig. 4: Consumption of EPA and DHA via Atlantic salmon.

Similar content being viewed by others

Data availability

This work used data collected from a variety of sources—both proprietary and freely available. All figures are based on this collected dataset. Source data for Figs. 1, 3 and 4 are provided in Supplementary Data 1.

Code availability

The R code for Figs. 1, 3 and 4 is provided in Supplementary Code 1.

References

  1. The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture 2020: Sustainability in Action (FAO, 2020); https://doi.org/10.4060/ca9229en

  2. Fish to 2030: Prospects for Fisheries and Aquaculture (World Bank, 2013).

  3. OECD–FAO Agricultural Outlook 2020–2029 (OECD and FAO, 2020).

  4. Turchini, G. M., Trushenski, J. T. & Glencross, B. D. Thoughts for the future of aquaculture nutrition: realigning perspectives to reflect contemporary issues related to judicious use of marine resources in aquafeeds. N. Am. J. Aquac. 81, 13–39 (2019).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  5. Fishmeal and Fish Oil—Case Study Monthly Highlights No. 4/2019, 43 (EUMOFA, 2019).

  6. Tacon, A. G. J. & Metian, M. Global overview on the use of fish meal and fish oil in industrially compounded aquafeeds: trends and future prospects. Aquaculture 285, 146–158 (2008).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  7. Cao, L. et al. China’s aquaculture and the world’s wild fisheries. Science 347, 133–135 (2015).

    Article  ADS  CAS  Google Scholar 

  8. Aranda, M. Developments on fisheries management in Peru: the new individual vessel quota system for the anchoveta fishery. Fish. Res. 96, 308–312 (2009).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  9. Shepherd, C. J. & Jackson, A. J. Global fishmeal and fish-oil supply: inputs, outputs and markets. J. Fish Biol. 83, 1046–1066 (2013).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  10. Cottrell, R. S., Blanchard, J. L., Halpern, B. S., Metian, M. & Froehlich, H. E. Global adoption of novel aquaculture feeds could substantially reduce forage fish demand by 2030. Nat. Food 1, 301–308 (2020).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  11. Froehlich, H. E., Jacobsen, N. S., Essington, T. E., Clavelle, T. & Halpern, B. S. Avoiding the ecological limits of forage fish for fed aquaculture. Nat. Sustain. 1, 298–303 (2018).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  12. Turchini, G. M. Fish oils, misconceptions and the environment. Am. J. Public Health 103, e4 (2013).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  13. Schreiber, M. A. & Halliday, A. Uncommon among the commons? Disentangling the sustainability of the Peruvian anchovy fishery. Ecol. Soc. 18, 12 (2013).

    Google Scholar 

  14. Tacon, A. G. J. & Metian, M. Fishing for feed or fishing for food: increasing global competition for small pelagic forage fish. Ambio 38, 294–302 (2009).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  15. Aas, T. S., Ytrestøyl, T. & Åsgård, T. Utilization of feed resources in the production of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) in Norway: an update for 2016. Aquac. Rep. 15, 100216 (2019).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  16. Shepherd, C. J., Monroig, O. & Tocher, D. R. Future availability of raw materials for salmon feeds and supply chain implications: the case of Scottish farmed salmon. Aquaculture 467, 49–62 (2017).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  17. Tocher, D. R. Omega-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids and aquaculture in perspective. Aquaculture 449, 94–107 (2015).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  18. Sissener, N. H. Are we what we eat? Changes to the feed fatty acid composition of farmed salmon and its effects through the food chain. J. Exp. Biol. 221, jeb161521 (2018).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  19. Sprague, M., Dick, J. R. & Tocher, D. R. Impact of sustainable feeds on omega-3 long-chain fatty acid levels in farmed Atlantic salmon, 2006–2015. Sci. Rep. 6, 21892 (2016).

    Article  ADS  CAS  Google Scholar 

  20. Hertrampf, J. W. & Piedad-Pascual, F. Handbook on Ingredients for Aquaculture Feeds (Kluwer Academic, 2000).

  21. Sargent, J. & Tacon, A. Development of farmed fish: a nutritionally necessary alternative to meat. Proc. Nutr. Soc. 58, 377–383 (1999).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  22. Turchini, G. M., Nichols, P. D., Barrow, C. & Sinclair, A. J. Jumping on the omega-3 bandwagon: distinguishing the role of long-chain and short-chain omega-3 fatty acids. Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 52, 795–803 (2012).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  23. Ghasemifard, S., Wang, F., Sinclair, A. J., Elliott, G. & Turchini, G. M. How does high DHA fish oil affect health? A systematic review of evidence. Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 59, 1684–1727 (2019).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  24. EFSA Panel on Dietetic Products, Nutrition and Allergies (NDA) Scientific opinion on the tolerable upper intake level of eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and docosapentaenoic acid (DPA). EFSA J. 10, 2815 (2012).

  25. Kris-Etherton, P. M., Grieger, J. A. & Etherton, T. D. Dietary reference intakes for DHA and EPA. Prostaglandins Leukot. Essent. Fatty Acids 81, 99–104 (2009).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  26. Global Recommendations for EPA and DHA Intake (GOED, 2014).

  27. GOED Publishes EPA and DHA Intake Recommendations (GOED, 2016).

  28. Ghasemifard, S., Sinclair, A. J., Kaur, G., Lewandowski, P. & Turchini, G. M. What is the most effective way of increasing the bioavailability of dietary long chain omega-3 fatty acids—daily vs. weekly administration of fish oil? Nutrients 7, 5628–5645 (2015).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  29. Cottrell, R. S. et al. Time to rethink trophic levels in aquaculture policy. Rev. Aquac. https://doi.org/10.1111/raq.12535 (2021).

  30. Shepherd, C. & Little, D. Aquaculture-are the criticisms justified? Environmental impacts and use of resources with special reference to farming Atlantic salmon. World 4, 37–52 (2014).

    Google Scholar 

  31. Tacon, A. G. J. & Metian, M. Feed matters: satisfying the feed demand of aquaculture. Rev. Fish. Sci. Aquac. 23, 1–10 (2015).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  32. Mock, T. S. et al. Seasonal effects on growth and product quality in Atlantic salmon fed diets containing terrestrial oils as assessed by a long-term, on-farm growth trial. Aquac. Nutr. https://doi.org/10.1111/anu.13200 (2020).

  33. Jackson, A. & Newton, R. W. Project to Model the Use of Fisheries By-products in the Production of Marine Ingredients with Special Reference to the Omega 3 Fatty Acids, EPA and DHA (IFFO, 2016).

  34. Wijkström, U. N. Is feeding fish with fish a viable practice? in Farming the Waters for People and Food: Proc. Global Conference on Aquaculture 2010 (eds Subasinghe, R.P. et al.) 33–55 (FAO and NACA, 2012).

  35. The Evolution of Sustainability Metrics for Marine Ingredients—New (IFFO, 2022); https://www.iffo.com/evolution-sustainability-metrics-marine-ingredients-new

  36. Colombo, S. M. & Turchini, G. M. ‘Aquafeed 3.0’: creating a more resilient aquaculture industry with a circular bioeconomy framework. Rev. Aquac. 13, 1156–1158 (2021).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  37. Asche, F. & Tveterås, S. On the relationship between aquaculture and reduction fisheries. J. Agric. Econ. 55, 245–265 (2004).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  38. Alder, J., Campbell, B., Karpouzi, V., Kaschner, K. & Pauly, D. Forage fish: from ecosystems to markets. Annu. Rev. Environ. Resour. 33, 153–166 (2008).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  39. Welch, A. et al. From fishing to the sustainable farming of carnivorous marine finfish. Rev. Fish. Sci. 18, 235–247 (2010).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  40. Tanner, J. E. Southern Bluefin Tuna Aquaculture Subprogram: Tuna Environment Subproject—Development of Regional Environmental Sustainability Assessments for Tuna Sea-Cage Aquaculture Project No. 2001/104 (FRDC, 2007).

  41. Jeffriess, B. A Review of Tuna Growth Performance in Ranching and Farming Operations (ASBTIA, 2015).

  42. Kaushik, T. & Max, S. Taking the fish-in fish-out ratio a step further. Aquac. Eur. 35, 15–17 (2010).

    Google Scholar 

  43. Bou, M. et al. Requirements of n-3 very long-chain PUFA in Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L): effects of different dietary levels of EPA and DHA on fish performance and tissue composition and integrity. Br. J. Nutr. 117, 30–47 (2017).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  44. NRC Nutrient Requirements of Fish and Shrimp (National Academies Press, 2011); https://doi.org/10.17226/13039

  45. Rosenlund, G., Torstensen, B. E., Stubhaug, I., Usman, N. & Sissener, N. H. Atlantic salmon require long-chain n-3 fatty acids for optimal growth throughout the seawater period. J. Nutr. Sci. 5, e19 (2016).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  46. Mock, T. S. et al. A systematic review and analysis of long-term growth trials on the effect of diet on omega-3 fatty acid levels in the fillet tissue of post-smolt Atlantic salmon. Aquaculture 516, 734643 (2020).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  47. Mock, T. S. et al. The impact of dietary protein:lipid ratio on growth performance, fatty acid metabolism, product quality and waste output in Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar). Aquaculture 501, 191–201 (2019).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  48. Sanden, M., Stubhaug, I., Berntssen, M. H. G., Lie, Ø. & Torstensen, B. E. Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.) as a net producer of long-chain marine ω-3 fatty acids. J. Agric. Food Chem. 59, 12697–12706 (2011).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  49. Fishery and Aquaculture Statistics (FishStatJ) (FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Division, 2022).

  50. Ytrestøyl, T., Aas, T. S. & Åsgård, T. Utilisation of feed resources in production of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) in Norway. Aquaculture 448, 365–374 (2015).

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

The authors received no specific funding for this work.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Nutrition and Seafood Laboratory (NuSea.Lab), School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Deakin University, Queenscliff, Victoria, Australia

    Melissa M. Rocker, Thomas S. Mock & David S. Francis

  2. School of Agriculture and Food, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia

    Giovanni M. Turchini

Authors
  1. Melissa M. Rocker
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Thomas S. Mock
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Giovanni M. Turchini
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. David S. Francis
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Contributions

D.S.F. and G.M.T. conceptualized the subject. M.M.R. quantified and conducted the analyses, wrote the original manuscript and produced the figures. M.M.R., D.S.F. and T.S.M. contributed to the interpretation and expansion of the subject. M.M.R., D.S.F., T.S.M. and G.M.T. contributed to reviewing and editing the manuscript.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to David S. Francis.

Ethics declarations

Competing interests

The authors declare no competing interests.

Peer review

Peer review information

Nature Food thanks Albert Tacon and the other, anonymous, reviewer(s) for their contribution to the peer review of this work.

Additional information

Publisher’s note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Supplementary information

Supplementary Information

Supplementary Table 1 and supplementary data and code file names.

Reporting Summary

Supplementary Data 1

Statistical source data for Figs. 1, 3 and 4.

Supplementary Code 1

Code for Figs. 1, 3 and 4.

Rights and permissions

Springer Nature or its licensor holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Rocker, M.M., Mock, T.S., Turchini, G.M. et al. The judicious use of finite marine resources can sustain Atlantic salmon (salmo salar) aquaculture to 2100 and beyond. Nat Food 3, 644–649 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1038/s43016-022-00561-4

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s43016-022-00561-4

This article is cited by

Search

Advanced search

Quick links

Nature Briefing Anthropocene

Sign up for the Nature Briefing: Anthropocene newsletter — what matters in anthropocene research, free to your inbox weekly.

Get the most important science stories of the day, free in your inbox. Sign up for Nature Briefing: Anthropocene