Abstract
High-frequency time series analysis and cross-correlation identified the relationship between precipitation and water-level responses at 16 sandstone wells in southern California, USA. The time series analysis suggested that the water table rises only when a threshold value of precipitation is reached during the rainy season that likely represents the water content deficit from the previous 7-month dry season being replenished before generating a water-table response. The cross-correlation indicates two statistically significant lag-times: 0–3 and 20–50 days. Confidence in these results was augmented by unprecedented and exceptionally high-resolution sampling frequency. Water pressure readings were collected every second and then analyzed to identify and remove the effects of barometric pressure changes, Earth tides and earthquakes on water levels. These effects are usually considered “noise” in recharge studies, but their accurate quantification helped assess the unconfined nature of the wells, minimize uncertainties of the results, and isolate the groundwater responses to precipitation. Diffusivity values for the thick unsaturated zone, based on the time lags, suggest quick responses are related to flow through fractures and longer time lags are associated with piston-type movement in the matrix. Fast responses were more likely for shallow water tables in response to high-intensity precipitation events and vice versa. These findings are consistent with those found, using lower resolution data, for the Chalk aquifer in England (UK), despite the contrasting fracture and matrix properties, hydrogeological setting and climatic conditions. Thus, the same style of response to precipitation is expected globally where similar fractured porous media are present.
Résumé
L’analyse de séries chronologiques à haute fréquence et la corrélation croisée ont permis d’identifier la relation entre les précipitations et les niveaux d’eau dans 16 puits interceptant des grès dans le sud de la Californie, Etats-Unis d’Amérique. L’analyse des séries chronologiques a suggéré que la nappe phréatique ne monte que lorsqu’une valeur seuil de précipitations est atteinte au cours de la saison des pluies, correspondant probablement à la reconstitution du déficit en teneur en eau de la saison sèche précédente d’une durée de 7 mois avant de générer une réponse de la nappe phréatique. La corrélation croisée indique deux temps de latence statistiquement significatifs : 0–3 et 20–50 jours. La confiance dans ces résultats a été renforcée par une fréquence d’échantillonnage sans précédent et exceptionnellement à haute résolution. Les relevés de pression de l’eau ont été recueillis toutes les secondes, puis analysés pour identifier et supprimer les effets des changements de pressions barométriques, des marées terrestres et des tremblements de terres sur les niveaux d’eau. Ces effets sont généralement considérés comme du “bruit” dans les études relatives à la recharge, mais leur quantification précise a permis d’évaluer le caractère non captif des puits, de minimiser les incertitudes des résultats et de dissocier les réponses des eaux souterraines aux précipitations. Les valeurs de diffusivité pour la zone épaisse non saturée, basées sur les décalages temporels, suggèrent que des réponses rapides sont liées à l’écoulement à travers les fractures et que des décalages temporels plus longs sont associés à un mouvement de type piston dans la matrice. Des réponses rapides étaient plus probables pour les nappes phréatiques peu profondes en réponse à des événements de précipitations de haute intensité et vice versa. Ces résultats sont cohérents avec ceux trouvés, en utilisant des données à plus faible résolution, pour l’aquifère de craie en Angleterre (Royaume-Uni), malgré les propriétés contrastées des fractures et de la matrice, le contexte hydrogéologique et les conditions climatiques. Ainsi, on peut s’attendre à retrouver le même style de réponse aux précipitations de par le monde, là où des milieux poreux fracturés similaires sont présents.
Resumen
El análisis de series temporales de alta frecuencia y la correlación cruzada identificaron la relación entre la precipitación y las respuestas del nivel del agua en 16 pozos en arenisca en el sur de California, Estados Unidos. El análisis de las series temporales sugirió que el nivel freático se eleva sólo cuando se alcanza un valor umbral de precipitación durante la estación de lluvias que probablemente representa el déficit de contenido de agua de la estación seca anterior de 7 meses que se repone antes de generar una respuesta del nivel freático. La correlación cruzada indica dos tiempos de retraso estadísticamente significativos: 0–3 y 20–50 días. La confianza en estos resultados se vio aumentada por una frecuencia de muestreo sin precedentes y de alta resolución. Las lecturas de la presión del agua se recogieron cada segundo y luego se analizaron para identificar y eliminar los efectos de los cambios de presión barométrica, las mareas terrestres y los terremotos en los niveles de agua. Estos efectos suelen considerarse “ruido” en los estudios de recarga, pero su cuantificación precisa ayudó a evaluar la naturaleza no confinada de los pozos, a minimizar las incertidumbres de los resultados y a aislar las respuestas de las aguas subterráneas a las precipitaciones. Los valores de difusividad para la zona no saturada de gran espesor, basados en los desfases temporales, sugieren que las respuestas rápidas están relacionadas con el flujo a través de las fracturas y los desfases temporales más largos están asociados con el movimiento de tipo pistón en la matriz. Las respuestas rápidas fueron más probables para las capas freáticas poco profundas en respuesta a eventos de precipitación de alta intensidad y viceversa. Estos resultados son coherentes con los encontrados, utilizando datos de menor resolución, para el acuífero Chalk en Inglaterra (Reino Unido), a pesar de las propiedades contrastadas de la fractura y la matriz, el entorno hidrogeológico y las condiciones climáticas. Por lo tanto, se espera el mismo estilo de respuesta a las precipitaciones en forma global, donde existen medios porosos fracturados similares.
摘要
高频时间序列分析和互相关性确定了美国南加州 16 口砂岩井的降水与水位响应之间的关系。时间序列分析表明, 只有在雨季达到降水阈值时, 地下水位才会上升, 这可能表示着前7 个月旱季的含水量亏缺在地下水位响应之前得到补充。互相关表明两个具有统计学意义的滞后时间:0–3 天和 20–50 天。史无前例的高分辨率采样频率提高了对这些结果的置信度。每秒收集一次水压读数, 然后对其进行分析, 以识别和消除气压变化、地球潮汐和地震对水位的影响。这些影响在补给研究中通常被认为是“噪音”, 但它们的准确量化有助于评估井的承压性质, 最大限度地减少结果的不确定性, 并去除地下水对降水的响应。基于时间滞后的厚非饱和带的扩散率值表明, 快速响应与通过裂缝的流动有关, 而较长的时间滞后与基质中的活塞式运动有关。响应高强度降水事件的浅层潜水位更有可能快速响应, 反之亦然。尽管裂缝和基质特性、水文地质环境和气候条件存在差异,这些发现与使用较低分辨率数据发现的英格兰(英国)白垩纪含水层的结果一致。因此对于具有类似的裂缝多孔介质条件, 降水对地下水的相同响应类型具有全球性。
Resumo
A análise de séries temporais de alta frequência e a correlação cruzada identificaram a relação entre a precipitação e as respostas do nível da água em 16 poços de arenito no sul da Califórnia, EUA. A análise da séries temporais sugeriu que o lençol freático aumenta apenas quando um valor limite de precipitação é atingido durante a estação chuvosa que provavelmente representa o déficit de conteúdo de água da estação seca anterior de 7 meses sendo reabastecido antes de gerar uma resposta do lençol freático. A correlação cruzada indica dois tempos de atraso estatisticamente significativos: 0–3 e 20–50 dias. A confiança nesses resultados foi aumentada pela frequência de amostragem sem precedentes e excepcionalmente de alta resolução. As leituras da pressão da água foram coletadas a cada segundo e depois analisadas para identificar e remover os efeitos das mudanças na pressão barométrica, marés terrestres e terremotos nos níveis da água. Esses efeitos são geralmente considerados “ruído” em estudos de recarga, mas sua quantificação precisa ajudou a avaliar a natureza não confinada dos poços, minimizar incertezas dos resultados e isolar as respostas das águas subterrâneas à precipitação. Os valores de difusividade para a zona não saturada espessa, com base nas defasagens de tempo, sugerem que respostas rápidas estão relacionadas a fraturas de fluxo e defasagens de tempo mais longas estão associadas a movimentos do tipo pistão na matriz. Respostas rápidas foram mais prováveis para lençóis freáticos rasos em resposta a eventos de precipitação de alta intensidade e vice-versa. Esses achados são consistentes com os encontrados, usando dados de baixa resolução, para o aquífero Chalk na Inglaterra (Reino Unido), apesar das propriedades contrastantes de fratura e matriz, configuração hidrogeológica e condições climáticas. Assim, o mesmo estilo de resposta à precipitação é esperado globalmente onde meios porosos fraturados semelhantes estão presentes.
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Field work was performed by Ryan Kroeker, from the Morwick G360 Groundwater Research Institute.
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Funding for this work was provided by an NSERC Industrial Research Chair (no. IRCPJ 363783) to Beth Parker in partnership with the Boeing Company.
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Manna, F., Kennel, J. & Parker, B.L. Understanding mechanisms of recharge through fractured sandstone using high-frequency water-level-response data. Hydrogeol J 30, 1599–1618 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10040-022-02515-3
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10040-022-02515-3