1932
0
  1. Home
  2. A-Z Publications
  3. Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics
  4. Volume 60, 2022
  5. Article

Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics

Volume 60, 2022

Atmospheres of Rocky Exoplanets

Abstract

Rocky planets are common around other stars, but their atmospheric properties remain largely unconstrained. Thanks to a wealth of recent planet discoveries and upcoming advances in observing capability, we are poised to characterize the atmospheres of dozens of rocky exoplanets in this decade. The theoretical understanding of rocky exoplanet atmospheres has advanced considerably in the last few years, yielding testable predictions of their evolution, chemistry, dynamics, and even possible biosignatures. We review key progress in this field to date and discuss future objectives. Our major conclusions are as follows:

  • ▪  Many rocky planets may form with initial H–He envelopes that are later lost to space, likely due to a combination of stellar UV/X-ray irradiation and internal heating.
  • ▪  After the early stages of evolution, a wide diversity of atmospheric compositions is expected as a result of variations in host star flux, atmospheric escape rates, interior exchange, and other factors.
  • ▪  Observations have ruled out both the presence of H-dominated atmospheres on several nearby rocky exoplanets and the presence of any thick atmosphere on one target. A more detailed atmospheric characterization of these planets and others will become possible in the near future.
  • ▪  Exoplanet biosphere searches are an exciting future goal. However, reliable detections for a representative sample of planets will require further advances in observing capability and improvements in our understanding of abiotic planetary processes.

Keyword(s): atmospheres, biosignatures, chemistry, exoplanets, habitability, planet formation
Loading

Article metrics loading...

/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-astro-052920-125632
2022-08-18
2024-04-19
Loading full text...

Full text loading...

/deliver/fulltext/astro/60/1/annurev-astro-052920-125632.html?itemId=/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-astro-052920-125632&mimeType=html&fmt=ahah

Literature Cited

  1. Abbot DS, Cowan NB, Ciesla FJ. 2012. Astrophys. J. 756:2178–90
  2. Abe Y, Abe-Ouchi A, Sleep NH, Zahnle KJ. 2011. Astrobiology 11:5443–60
  3. Airapetian VS, Glocer A, Gronoff G, Hebrard E, Danchi W. 2016. Nat. Geosci. 9:6452–55
  4. Angelo I, Hu R. 2017. Astron. J. 154:6232
  5. Anglada-Escudé G, Amado PJ, Barnes J et al. 2016. Nature 536:7617437–40
  6. Ardaseva A, Rimmer PB, Waldmann I et al. 2017. MNRAS 470:1187–96
  7. Armstrong K, Frost DJ, McCammon CA, Rubie DC, Ballaran TB. 2019. Science 365:6456903–6
  8. Arney GN, Meadows VS, Domagal-Goldman SD et al. 2017. Astrophys. J. 836:149
  9. Arnscheidt CW, Wordsworth RD, Ding F. 2019. Astrophys. J. 881:160
  10. Auclair-Desrotour P, Heng K. 2020. Astron. Astrophys. 638:A77
  11. Baraffe I, Homeier D, Allard F, Chabrier G. 2015. Astron. Astrophys. 577:A42
  12. Barstow JK, Aigrain S, Irwin PGJ, Kendrew S, Fletcher LN. 2016. MNRAS 458:32657–66
  13. Barstow JK, Irwin PGJ. 2016. MNRAS 461:1L92–96
  14. Batalha NE, Lewis NK, Line MR, Valenti J, Stevenson K. 2018. Astrophys. J. Lett. 856:2L34
  15. Batalha NM, Borucki WJ, Bryson ST et al. 2011. Astrophys. J. 729:127
  16. Batalha NM, Rowe JF, Bryson ST et al. 2013. Astrophys. J. Suppl. Ser. 204:224
  17. Bean JL, Abbot DS, Kempton EMR. 2017. Astrophys. J. Lett. 841:2L24
  18. Bean JL, Raymond SN, Owen JE. 2021. J. Geophys. Res. Planets 126:e06639
  19. Bedell M, Bean JL, Meléndez J et al. 2018. Astrophys. J. 865:168
  20. Benneke B, Seager S. 2012. Astrophys. J. 753:2100
  21. Berger TA, Huber D, Gaidos E, van Saders JL, Weiss LM. 2020. Astron. J. 160:3108
  22. Berner RA. 2004. The Phanerozoic Carbon Cycle: CO2and O2 Oxford, UK: Oxford Univ. Press
  23. Bolmont E, Selsis F, Owen JE et al. 2017. MNRAS 464:33728–41
  24. Brain DA, Jakosky BM. 1998. J. Geophys. Res. Planets 103:10E22689–94
  25. Bryson S, Kunimoto M, Kopparapu RK et al. 2021. Astron. J. 161:136
  26. Buchhave LA, Latham DW. 2015. Astrophys. J. 808:2187
  27. Carone L, Baeyens R, Mollière P et al. 2020. MNRAS 496:33582–614
  28. Carone L, Keppens R, Decin L. 2014. MNRAS 445:1930–45
  29. Carone L, Keppens R, Decin L. 2015. MNRAS 453:32412–37
  30. Carone L, Keppens R, Decin L. 2016. MNRAS 461:21981–2002
  31. Carroll JJ, Slupsky JD, Mather AE. 1991. J. Phys. Chem. Ref. Data 20:61201–9
  32. Castan T, Menou K. 2011. Astrophys. J. Lett. 743:2L36
  33. Catling DC, Krissansen-Totton J, Kiang NY et al. 2018. Astrobiology 18:6709–38
  34. Catling DC, Zahnle KJ, McKay CP. 2001. Science 293:5531839–43
  35. Chachan Y, Stevenson DJ. 2018. Astrophys. J. 854:121
  36. Chapman S, Cowling TG. 1970. The Mathematical Theory of Non-Uniform Gases: An Account of the Kinetic Theory of Viscosity, Thermal Conduction and Diffusion in Gases Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press
  37. Checlair JH, Menou K, Abbot DS. 2017. Astrophys. J. 845:2132
  38. Checlair JH, Olson SL, Jansen MF, Abbot DS. 2019. Astrophys. J. Lett. 884:2L46
  39. Chen H, Wolf ET, Zhan Z, Horton DE. 2019. Astrophys. J. 886:116
  40. Coltice N, Schmalzl J. 2006. Geophys. Res. Lett. 33:23). https://doi.org/10.1029/2006GL027707
     [Crossref]
  41. Cowan NB, Agol E, Meadows VS et al. 2009. Astrophys. J. 700:2915
  42. Crida A, Ligi R, Dorn C, Borsa F, Lebreton Y. 2018. Res. Notes Am. Astron. Soc. 2:3172
  43. Crosley MK, Osten RA. 2018. Astrophys. J. 856:139
  44. Dalcanton J, Seager S, Aigrain S et al. 2015. arXiv:1507.04779 [astro-ph]
  45. de Wit J, Wakeford HR, Gillon M et al. 2016. Nature 537:761869–72
  46. de Wit J, Wakeford HR, Lewis NK et al. 2018. Nat. Astron. 2:214–19
  47. Defrère D, Absil O, Beichman CA 2018. Handbook of Exoplanets HJ Deeg, JA Belmonte 1229–55 Cham, Switz: Springer
  48. Deibert EK, de Mooij EJW, Jayawardhana R et al. 2021. Astrophys. J. 161:5209
  49. Demory BO, Gillon M, de Wit J et al. 2016a. Nature 532:7598207–9
  50. Demory BO, Gillon M, Madhusudhan N, Queloz D. 2016b. MNRAS 455:22018–27
  51. Deng J, Du Z, Karki BB, Ghosh DB, Lee KKM. 2020. Nat. Commun. 11:2007
  52. Desch SJ, Abbot D, Krijt S et al. 2020. Planetary Diversity EJ Tasker, C Unterborn, M Laneuville, et al. 6–16-40 Bristol, UK: IOP Sci.
  53. DeWitt HL, Hasenkopf CA, Trainer MG et al. 2010. Astrobiology 10:8773–81
  54. Diamond-Lowe H, Berta-Thompson Z, Charbonneau D, Dittmann J, Kempton EMR. 2020a. Astrophys. J. 160:127
  55. Diamond-Lowe H, Berta-Thompson Z, Charbonneau D, Kempton EMR. 2018. Astrophys. J. 156:242
  56. Diamond-Lowe H, Charbonneau D, Malik M, Kempton EMR, Beletsky Y. 2020b. Astrophys. J. 160:4188
  57. Ding F, Pierrehumbert RT. 2016. Astrophys. J. 822:124
  58. Ding F, Pierrehumbert RT. 2018. Astrophys. J. 867:154
  59. Ding F, Wordsworth RD. 2020. Astrophys. J. Lett. 891:1L18
  60. Domagal-Goldman SD, Kasting JF, Johnston DT, Farquhar J. 2008. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 269:1/229–40
  61. Dong C, Jin M, Lingam M et al. 2018. PNAS 115:2260–65
  62. Dorn C, Harrison JHD, Bonsor A, Hands TO. 2019. MNRAS 484:1712–27
  63. Dressing CD, Charbonneau D. 2015. Astrophys. J. 807:145
  64. Edwards B, Changeat Q, Mori M et al. 2021. Astrophys. J. 161:144
  65. Ehrenreich D, Bourrier V, Bonfils X et al. 2012. Astron. Astrophys. 547:A18
  66. Ehrenreich D, Bourrier V, Wheatley PJ et al. 2015. Nature 522:7557459–61
  67. Elkins-Tanton LT. 2012. Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci. 40:113–39
  68. Essack Z, Seager S, Pajusalu M. 2020. Astrophys. J. 898:2160
  69. Etiope G, Ehlmann BL, Schoell M. 2013. Icarus 224:2276–85
  70. Fazio GG, Hora JL, Allen LE et al. 2004. Astrophys. J. Suppl. Ser. 154:110–17
  71. Fegley B, Zolotov MY, Lodders K. 1997. Icarus 125:2416–39
  72. Feng YK, Robinson TD, Fortney JJ et al. 2018. Astron. J. 155:5200
  73. Ferris JP, Joshi PC, Edelson EH, Lawless JG. 1978. J. Mol. Evol. 11:4293–311
  74. Fischer RA, Campbell AJ, Shofner GA et al. 2011. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 304:3/4496–502
  75. Fischer RA, Cottrell E, Hauri E, Lee KKM, Le Voyer M 2020. PNAS 117:168743–49
  76. Forget F, Leconte J. 2014. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. A 372:201420130084
  77. Forget F, Pierrehumbert RT. 1997. Science 278:53411273–76
  78. France K, Loyd ROP, Youngblood A et al. 2016. Astrophys. J. 820:289
  79. Fulton BJ, Petigura EA. 2018. Astron. J. 156:6264
  80. Fulton BJ, Petigura EA, Howard AW et al. 2017. Astron. J. 154:3109
  81. Gaillard F, Bernadou F, Roskosz M et al. 2022. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 577:117255
  82. Gandhi S, Brogi M, Webb RK. 2020. MNRAS 498:1194–204
  83. Gao P, Benneke B. 2018. Astrophys. J. 863:2165
  84. Gao P, Hu R, Robinson TD, Li C, Yung YL 2015. Astrophys. J. 806:2249
  85. García Muñoz A, Fossati L, Youngblood A et al. 2021. Astrophys. J. Lett. 907:2L36
  86. Garcia-Sage K, Glocer A, Drake JJ, Gronoff G, Cohen O. 2017. Astrophys. J. Lett. 844:1L13
  87. Gaudi BS, Seager S, Mennesson B et al. 2020. arXiv:2001.06683 [astro-ph]
  88. Gialluca MT, Robinson TD, Rugheimer S, Wunderlich F. 2021. Publ. Astron. Soc. Pac. 133:054401
  89. Gillon M, Triaud AHMJ, Demory BO et al. 2017. Nature 542:7642456–60
  90. Ginzburg S, Schlichting HE, Sari R. 2018. MNRAS 476:1759–65
  91. Glaser DM, Hartnett HE, Desch SJ et al. 2020. Astrophys. J. 893:2163
  92. Goldblatt C, Claire MW, Lenton TM et al. 2009. Nat. Geosci. 2:12891–96
  93. Goldblatt C, Robinson TD, Zahnle KJ, Crisp D. 2013. Nat. Geosci. 6:8661–67
  94. Gómez-Leal I, Kaltenegger L, Lucarini V, Lunkeit F. 2019. Icarus 321:608–18
  95. Greaves JS, Richards A, Bains W et al. 2021. Nat. Astron. 5:7655–64
  96. Grewal DS, Dasgupta R, Farnell A. 2020. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 280:281–301
  97. Gunell H, Maggiolo R, Nilsson H et al. 2018. Astron. Astrophys. 614:L3
  98. Gupta A, Schlichting HE. 2019. MNRAS 487:124–33
  99. Hakim K, Van den Berg A, Vazan A et al. 2019. Astron. Astrophys. 630:A152
  100. Hamano K, Abe Y, Genda H. 2013. Nature 497:7451607–10
  101. Hammond M, Pierrehumbert RT. 2017. Astrophys. J. 849:2152
  102. Haqq-Misra J, Kopparapu RK, Batalha NE, Harman CE, Kasting JF. 2016. Astrophys. J. 827:2120
  103. Hawkesworth CJ, Brown M. 2018. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. A 376:213220180228
  104. Hayashi C, Nakazawa K, Mizuno H. 1979. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 43:122–28
  105. He C, Hörst SM, Lewis NK et al. 2020. Nat. Astron. 4:10986–93
  106. Hébrard E, Bénilan Y, Raulin F. 2005. Adv. Space Res. 36:2268–73
  107. Heller R, Leconte J, Barnes R. 2011. Astron. Astrophys. 528:A27
  108. Hirschmann MM. 2000. Geochem. Geophys. Geosyst. 1:10). https://doi.org/10.1029/2000GC000070
     [Crossref]
  109. Hoffman PF, Kaufman AJ, Halverson GP, Schrag DP. 1998. Science 281:53811342–46
  110. Höning D, Tosi N, Spohn T. 2019. Astron. Astrophys. 627:A48
  111. Hood CE, Fortney JJ, Line MR et al. 2020. Astron. J. 160:5198
  112. Hörst SM, He C, Lewis NK et al. 2018. Nat. Astron. 2:4303–6
  113. Howard AW, Marcy GW, Bryson ST et al. 2012. Astrophys. J. Suppl. Ser. 201:215
  114. Hu R, Damiano M, Scheucher M et al. 2021. Astrophys. J. Lett. 921:118
  115. Hu R, Ehlmann BL, Seager S. 2012. Astrophys. J. 752:17
  116. Hu R, Seager S. 2014. Astrophys. J. 784:163
  117. Hu R, Seager S, Bains W. 2013. Astrophys. J. 769:16
  118. Hunten DM, Pepin RO, Walker JC. 1987. Icarus 69:3532–49
  119. Hurowitz JA, Fischer WW, Tosca NJ, Milliken RE. 2010. Nat. Geosci. 3:5323–26
  120. Ikoma M, Hori Y. 2012. Astrophys. J. 753:166
  121. Ingalls JG, Krick JE, Carey SJ et al. 2016. Astrophys. J. 152:244
  122. Ingersoll AP. 1969. J. Atmos. Sci. 26:61191–98
  123. Ito Y, Ikoma M, Kawahara H et al. 2015. Astrophys. J. 801:2144
  124. Iyer AR, Line MR. 2020. Astrophys. J. 889:278
  125. Javoy M. 1999. C. R. Acad. Sci. 329:8537–55
  126. Joshi MM. 2003. Astrobiology 3:2415–27
  127. Joshi MM, Haberle RM. 2012. Astrobiology 12:13–8
  128. Joshi MM, Haberle RM, Reynolds RT. 1997. Icarus 129:2450–65
  129. Kaltenegger L. 2017. Annu. Rev. Astron. Astrophys. 55:433–85
  130. Kaltenegger L, Sasselov D. 2009. Astrophys. J. 708:21162
  131. Kane SR, Arney G, Crisp D et al. 2019. J. Geophys. Res. Planets 124:82015–28
  132. Kang W, Ding F, Wordsworth R, Seager S. 2021. Astrophys. J. 906:267
  133. Kang W, Wordsworth R. 2019. Astrophys. J. Lett. 885:1L18
  134. Kaspi Y, Showman AP. 2015. Astrophys. J. 804:160
  135. Kasting JF, Brown LL. 1998. The Molecular Origins of Life: Assembling the Pieces of the Puzzle A Brack 35–56 New York: Cambridge Univ. Press
  136. Kasting JF, Kopparapu R, Ramirez RM, Harman CE. 2014. PNAS 111:3512641–46
  137. Kasting JF, Liu SC, Donahue TM. 1979. J. Geophys. Res. Oceans 84:6C3097–107
  138. Kasting JF, Whitmire DP, Reynolds RT. 1993. Icarus 101:1108–28
  139. Katyal N, Ortenzi G, Grenfell JL et al. 2020. Astron. Astrophys. 643:A81
  140. Kempton EMR, Bean JL, Louie DR et al. 2018. Publ. Astron. Soc. Pac. 130:993114401
  141. Khurana KK, Jia X, Kivelson MG et al. 2011. Science 332:60341186–89
  142. Kimble RA, MacKenty JW, O'Connell RW, Townsend JA. 2008. Proc. SPIE 7010:70101E
  143. Kislyakova KG, Holmström M, Odert P et al. 2019. Astron. Astrophys. 623:A131
  144. Kite ES, Fegley B Jr., Schaefer L, Gaidos E. 2016. Astrophys. J. 828:280
  145. Kite ES, Ford EB. 2018. Astrophys. J. 864:175
  146. Kitzmann D, Alibert Y, Godolt M et al. 2015. MNRAS 452:43752–58
  147. Klein C. 2005. Am. Mineral. 90:101473–99
  148. Knutson HA, Benneke B, Deming D, Homeier D. 2014. Nature 505:748166–68
  149. Koll DDB, Abbot DS. 2016. Astrophys. J. 825:299
  150. Koll DDB, Malik M, Mansfield M et al. 2019. Astrophys. J. 886:2140
  151. Komacek TD, Fauchez TJ, Wolf ET, Abbot DS. 2020. Astrophys. J. Lett. 888:2L20
  152. Komacek TD, Jansen MF, Wolf ET, Abbot DS. 2019. Astrophys. J. 883:146
  153. Kopparapu R, Wolf ET, Haqq-Misra J et al. 2016. Astrophys. J. 819:184
  154. Kopparapu RK, Ramirez R, Kasting JF et al. 2013. Astrophys. J. 765:2131
  155. Korenaga J. 2010. Astrophys. J. Lett. 725:1L43
  156. Kreidberg L, Bean JL, Désert JM et al. 2014. Nature 505:748169–72
  157. Kreidberg L, Koll D, Morley C et al. 2019. Nature 573:777287–90
  158. Kreidberg L, Loeb A. 2016. Astrophys. J. Lett. 832:1L12
  159. Krissansen-Totton J, Fortney JJ, Nimmo F, Wogan N. 2021a. AGU Adv. 2:2e2020AV000294
  160. Krissansen-Totton J, Galloway ML, Wogan N, Dhaliwal JK, Fortney JJ. 2021b. Astrophys. J. 913:2107
  161. Krissansen-Totton J, Garland R, Irwin P, Catling DC. 2018. Astron. J. 156:3114
  162. Lammer H, Kasting JF, Chassefière E et al. 2008. Space Sci. Rev. 139:1–4399–436
  163. Lammer H, Scherf M, Kurokawa H et al. 2020. Space Sci. Rev. 216:474
  164. Lebrun T, Massol H, Chassefière E et al. 2013. J. Geophys. Res. Planets 118:61155–76
  165. Leconte J, Forget F, Charnay B et al. 2013. Astron. Astrophys. 554:A69
  166. Leconte J, Wu H, Menou K, Murray N. 2015. Science 347:6222632–35
  167. Lee EJ, Chiang E. 2015. Astrophys. J. 811:141
  168. Lefèvre M, Turbet M, Pierrehumbert R. 2021. Astrophys. J. 913:2101
  169. Lehmer OR, Catling DC, Krissansen-Totton J. 2020. Nat. Commun. 11:6153
  170. Lenardic A, Crowley JW. 2012. Astrophys. J. 755:2132
  171. Levi A, Sasselov D, Podolak M. 2017. Astrophys. J. 838:124
  172. Libby-Roberts JE, Berta-Thompson ZK, Diamond-Lowe H et al. 2021. arXiv:2105.10487 [astro-ph]
  173. Libourel G, Marty B, Humbert F 2003. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 67:214123–35
  174. Lichtenberg T, Bower DJ, Hammond M et al. 2021. J. Geophys. Res. Planets 126:e2020JE006711
  175. Lichtenberg T, Golabek GJ, Burn R et al. 2019. Nat. Astron. 3:4307–13
  176. Lichtenegger HIM, Lammer H, Grießmeier JM et al. 2010. Icarus 210:11–7
  177. Lincowski AP, Lustig-Yaeger J, Meadows VS. 2019. Astron. J. 158:126
  178. Lincowski AP, Meadows VS, Crisp D et al. 2018. Astrophys. J. 867:176
  179. Lodders K. 2003. Astrophys. J. 591:21220
  180. Loftus K, Wordsworth RD. 2021. J. Geophys. Res. Planets 126:e2020JE006653
  181. Loftus K, Wordsworth RD, Morley CV. 2019. Astrophys. J. 887:2231
  182. Lopez ED, Fortney JJ. 2013. Astrophys. J. 776:12
  183. Lopez ED, Fortney JJ. 2014. Astrophys. J. 792:11
  184. Lopez-Puertas M, Taylor FW. 2001. Non-LTE Radiative Transfer in the Atmosphere, Vol. 3 Singapore: World Sci.
  185. Lovelock JE. 1965. Nature 207:997568–70
  186. Lovis C, Snellen I, Mouillet D et al. 2017. Astron. Astrophys. 599:A16
  187. Luger R, Barnes R. 2015. Astrobiology 15:2119–43
  188. Luger R, Barnes R, Lopez E et al. 2015. Astrobiology 15:157–88
  189. Luger R, Lustig-Yaeger J, Fleming DP et al. 2017. Astrophys. J. 837:163
  190. Lupu RE, Zahnle K, Marley MS et al. 2014. Astrophys. J. 784:127
  191. Lustig-Yaeger J, Meadows VS, Lincowski AP. 2019a. Astrophys. J. Lett. 887:1L11
  192. Lustig-Yaeger J, Meadows VS, Lincowski AP. 2019b. Astron. J. 158:127
  193. Lustig-Yaeger J, Meadows VS, Mendoza GT et al. 2018. Astron. J. 156:6301
  194. LUVOIR Team 2019. arXiv:1912.06219 [astro-ph.IM]
  195. Malsky I, Rogers LA. 2020. Astrophys. J. 896:148
  196. Mansfield M, Kite ES, Hu R et al. 2019. Astrophys. J. 886:2141
  197. Marounina N, Rogers LA. 2020. Astrophys. J. 890:2107
  198. Mayor M, Queloz D. 1995. Nature 378:6555355–59
  199. Mbarek R, Kempton EMR. 2016. Astrophys. J. 827:2121
  200. McDonald GD, Kreidberg L, Lopez E. 2019. Astrophys. J. 876:122
  201. McKay CP, Pollack JB, Courtin R. 1991. Science 253:50241118–21
  202. Meadows VS, Reinhard CT, Arney GN et al. 2018. Astrobiology 18:6630–62
  203. Melosh HJ, Vickery AM. 1989. Nature 338:6215487–89
  204. Merlis TM, Schneider T. 2010. J. Adv. Model. Earth Syst. 2:4). https://doi.org/10.3894/JAMES.2010.2.13
     [Crossref]
  205. Miguel Y, Kaltenegger L, Fegley B, Schaefer L. 2011. Astrophys. J. Lett. 742:2L19
  206. Mitri G, Showman AP, Lunine JI, Lorenz RD. 2007. Icarus 186:2385–94
  207. Mollière P, Snellen IAG. 2019. Astron. Astrophys. 622:A139
  208. Moore WB, Lenardic A, Jellinek A et al. 2017. Nat. Astron. 1:243
  209. Morbidelli A, Lunine JI, O'Brien DP, Raymond SN, Walsh KJ. 2012. Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci. 40:251–75
  210. Morley CV, Kreidberg L, Rustamkulov Z, Robinson T, Fortney JJ. 2017. Astrophys. J. 850:2121
  211. Mugnai LV, Modirrousta-Galian D, Edwards B et al. 2021. Astrophys. J. 161:6284
  212. Murray-Clay RA, Chiang EI, Murray N. 2009. Astrophys. J. 693:123
  213. Natl. Acad. Sci. Med 2018. Exoplanet Science Strategy Washington, DC: Natl. Acad. Press
  214. Natl. Acad. Sci. Med 2021. Pathways to Discovery in Astronomy and Astrophysics for the 2020s Washington, DC: Natl. Acad. Press
  215. Neumann GA, Cavanaugh JF, Sun X et al. 2013. Science 339:6117296–300
  216. Noack L, Breuer D. 2014. Planet. Space Sci. 98:41–49
  217. Noack L, Rivoldini A, Van Hoolst T. 2017. Phys. Earth Planet. Inter. 269:40–57
  218. Nortmann L, Pallé E, Salz M et al. 2018. Science 362:64211388–91
  219. Öberg KI, Murray-Clay R, Bergin EA. 2011. Astrophys. J. Lett. 743:1L16
  220. Odert P, Leitzinger M, Guenther EW, Heinzel P. 2020. MNRAS 494:33766–83
  221. Oklopčić A, Hirata CM. 2018. Astrophys. J. Lett. 855:1L11
  222. Olson SL, Schwieterman EW, Reinhard CT et al. 2018. Astrophys. J. Lett. 858:2L14
  223. Owen JE, Shaikhislamov IF, Lammer H, Fossati L, Khodachenko ML. 2020. Space Sci. Rev. 216:8129
  224. Owen JE, Wu Y. 2013. Astrophys. J. 775:2105
  225. Oze C, Sharma M. 2005. Geophys. Res. Lett. 32:10L10203
  226. Pierrehumbert R, Gaidos E. 2011. Astrophys. J. Lett. 734:1L13
  227. Pierrehumbert RT. 2010a. Astrophys. J. Lett. 726:1L8
  228. Pierrehumbert RT. 2010b. Principles of Planetary Climate Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press
  229. Quanz SP, Ottiger M, Fontanet E et al. 2021. arXiv:2101.07500 [astro-ph]
  230. Rackham BV, Apai D, Giampapa MS. 2018. Astrophys. J. 853:2122
  231. Ramirez RM. 2018. Geosciences 8:8280
  232. Ramirez RM, Kaltenegger L. 2014. Astrophys. J. Lett. 797:2L25
  233. Ramirez RM, Levi A. 2018. MNRAS 477:44627–40
  234. Ranjan S, Schwieterman EW, Harman C et al. 2020. Astrophys. J. 896:2148
  235. Rannou P, McKay CP, Lorenz RD. 2003. Planet. Space Sci. 51:14/15963–76
  236. Rappaport S, Levine A, Chiang E et al. 2012. Astrophys. J. 752:11
  237. Raymond SN, Quinn T, Lunine JI. 2004. Icarus 168:11–17
  238. Read PL, Tabataba-Vakili F, Wang Y et al. 2018. Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc. 144:7172558–76
  239. Ricker GR, Winn JN, Vanderspek R et al. 2015. J. Astron. Telesc. Instrum. Syst. 1:014003
  240. Rimmer PB, Rugheimer S. 2019. Icarus 329:124–31
  241. Robinson TD, Catling DC. 2014. Nat. Geosci. 7:112–15
  242. Robinson TD, Meadows VS, Crisp D. 2010. Astrophys. J. Lett. 721:1L67
  243. Rodler F, López-Morales M. 2014. Astrophys. J. 781:154
  244. Rogers LA. 2015. Astrophys. J. 801:141
  245. Rouan D, Deeg HJ, Demangeon O et al. 2011. Astrophys. J. Lett. 741:2L30
  246. Rugheimer S, Kaltenegger L, Segura A, Linsky J, Mohanty S. 2015. Astrophys. J. 809:157
  247. Schaefer L, Fegley B. 2009. Astrophys. J. Lett. 703:2L113
  248. Schaefer L, Lodders K, Fegley B. 2012. Astrophys. J. 755:141
  249. Schaefer L, Sasselov D. 2015. Astrophys. J. 801:140
  250. Schaefer L, Wordsworth RD, Berta-Thompson Z, Sasselov D. 2016. Astrophys. J. 829:263
  251. Schlichting HE, Sari R, Yalinewich A. 2015. Icarus 247:81–94
  252. Schwieterman EW, Kiang NY, Parenteau MN et al. 2018. Astrobiology 18:6663–708
  253. Seager S. 2013. Science 340:6132577–81
  254. Seager S, Schrenk M, Bains W. 2012. Astrobiology 12:161–82
  255. Segura A, Krelove K, Kasting JF et al. 2003. Astrobiology 3:4689–708
  256. Segura A, Meadows VS, Kasting JF, Crisp D, Cohen M. 2007. Astron. Astrophys. 472:2665–79
  257. Selsis F, Despois D, Parisot JP. 2002. Astron. Astrophys. 388:3985–1003
  258. Selsis F, Kasting JF, Levrard B et al. 2007. Astron. Astrophys. 476:31373–87
  259. Selsis F, Wordsworth RD, Forget F. 2011. Astron. Astrophys. 532:A1
  260. Sergeev DE, Lambert FH, Mayne NJ et al. 2020. Astrophys. J. 894:284
  261. Sheets HA, Deming D. 2017. Astron. J. 154:4160
  262. Shields AL, Ballard S, Johnson JA. 2016. Phys. Rep. 663:1–38
  263. Shields AL, Meadows VS, Bitz CM et al. 2013. Astrobiology 13:8715–39
  264. Shkolnik EL, Barman TS. 2014. Astron. J. 148:464
  265. Showman AP, Polvani LM. 2010. Geophys. Res. Lett. 37:18)
  266. Showman AP, Polvani LM. 2011. Astrophys. J. 738:171
  267. Showman AP, Wordsworth RD, Merlis TM, Kaspi Y. 2013. Comp. Climatol. Terr. Planets 1:277–326
  268. Sing DK, Fortney JJ, Nikolov N et al. 2016. Nature 529:758459–62
  269. Snellen I, de Kok R, Birkby JL et al. 2015. Astron. Astrophys. 576:A59
  270. Snellen IAG, de Kok RJ, de Mooij EJW, Albrecht S 2010. Nature 465:73011049–51
  271. Snellen IAG, de Kok RJ, le Poole R, Brogi M, Birkby J. 2013. Astrophys. J. 764:2182
  272. Snellen IAG, Guzman-Ramirez L, Hogerheijde MR, Hygate APS, Van der Tak FFS. 2020. Astron. Astrophys. 644:L2
  273. Sousa-Silva C, Seager S, Ranjan S et al. 2020. Astrobiology 20:2235–68
  274. Southworth J, Mancini L, Madhusudhan N et al. 2017. Astrophys. J. 153:4191
  275. Suissa G, Mandell AM, Wolf ET et al. 2020. Astrophys. J. 891:158
  276. Swain MR, Estrela R, Roudier GM et al. 2021. Astrophys. J. 161:5213
  277. Thompson MA, Telus M, Schaefer L et al. 2021. Nat. Astron. 5:6575–85
  278. Tian F, France K, Linsky JL, Mauas PJD, Vieytes MC. 2014. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 385:22–27
  279. Tian F, Ida S 2015. Nat. Geosci. 8:3177–80
  280. Tian F, Kasting JF, Solomon SC. 2009. Geophys. Res. Lett. 36:2L02205
  281. Trainer MG, Pavlov AA, DeWitt HL et al. 2006. PNAS 103:4818035–42
  282. Tsiaras A, Rocchetto M, Waldmann IP et al. 2016. Astrophys. J. 820:299
  283. Turbet M, Bolmont E, Ehrenreich D et al. 2020. Astron. Astrophys. 638:A41
  284. Turbet M, Leconte J, Selsis F et al. 2016. Astron. Astrophys. 596:A112
  285. Ugelow MS, De Haan DO, Hörst SM, Tolbert MA. 2018. Astrophys. J. Lett. 859:L2
  286. Unterborn CT, Desch SJ, Hinkel NR, Lorenzo A. 2018. Nat. Astron. 2:4297–302
  287. Unterborn CT, Kabbes JE, Pigott JS, Reaman DM, Panero WR. 2014. Astrophys. J. 793:2124
  288. Valencia D, Ikoma M, Guillot T, Nettelmann N. 2010. Astron. Astrophys. 516:A20
  289. Valencia D, O'Connell RJ, Sasselov DD. 2007. Astrophys. J. Lett. 670:1L45
  290. Van Eylen V, Agentoft C, Lundkvist MS et al. 2018. MNRAS 479:44786–95
  291. Waalkes WC, Berta-Thompson Z, Bourrier V et al. 2019. Astron. J. 158:150
  292. Walker JCG, Hays PB, Kasting JF. 1981. J. Geophys. Res. Oceans 86:10C9776–82
  293. Wang H, Wordsworth R. 2020. Astrophys. J. 891:17
  294. Wang Y, Read PL, Tabataba-Vakili F, Young RMB. 2018. Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc. 144:7172537–57
  295. Watson AJ, Donahue TM, Walker JCG. 1981. Icarus 48:2150–66
  296. Weiss LM, Marcy GW. 2014. Astrophys. J. Lett. 783:1L6
  297. Williams CD, Mukhopadhyay S. 2019. Nature 565:773778–81
  298. Wolf ET. 2017. Astrophys. J. Lett. 839:1L1
  299. Wolfgang A, Lopez E 2015. Astrophys. J. 806:2183
  300. Wordsworth RD. 2012. Icarus 219:1267–73
  301. Wordsworth RD. 2015. Astrophys. J. 806:2180
  302. Wordsworth RD. 2016a. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 447:103–11
  303. Wordsworth RD. 2016b. Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci. 44:381–408
  304. Wordsworth RD. 2021. Astrophys. J. Lett. 912:1L14
  305. Wordsworth RD, Forget F, Selsis F et al. 2011. Astrophys. J. Lett. 733:2L48
  306. Wordsworth RD, Kalugina Y, Lokshtanov S et al. 2017. Geophys. Res. Lett. 44:2665–71
  307. Wordsworth RD, Pierrehumbert R. 2013a. Science 339:611564–67
  308. Wordsworth RD, Pierrehumbert R. 2013b. Astrophys. J. 778:2154
  309. Wordsworth RD, Pierrehumbert R. 2014. Astrophys. J. Lett. 785:2L20
  310. Wordsworth RD, Schaefer LK, Fischer RA. 2018. Astron. J. 155:5195
  311. Wunderlich F, Godolt M, Grenfell JL et al. 2019. Astron. Astrophys. 624:A49
  312. Yang J, Cowan NB, Abbot DS. 2013. Astrophys. J. Lett. 771:2L45
  313. Yu X, Moses JI, Fortney JJ, Zhang X. 2021. Astrophys. J. 914:138
  314. Yung YL, DeMore WB. 1999. Photochemistry of Planetary Atmospheres, Vol. 1 Oxford, UK: Oxford Univ. Press
  315. Zahnle K, Kasting JF, Pollack JB. 1990. Icarus 84:2502–27
  316. Zahnle K, Pollack JB, Grinspoon D, Dones L. 1992. Icarus 95:11–23
  317. Zahnle KJ, Catling DC. 2017. Astrophys. J. 843:2122
  318. Zahnle KJ, Catling DC, Claire MW 2013. Chem. Geol. 362:26–34
  319. Zahnle KJ, Lupu R, Catling DC, Wogan N. 2020. Planet. Sci. J. 1:111
  320. Zahnle KJ, Walker JC. 1982. Rev. Geophys. 20:2280–92
  321. Zeng L, Jacobsen SB, Sasselov DD et al. 2019. PNAS 116:209723–28
  322. Zerkle AL, Claire MW, Domagal-Goldman SD, Farquhar J, Poulton SW. 2012. Nat. Geosci. 5:5359–63
  323. Zhang M, Knutson HA, Wang L et al. 2021. Astrophys. J. 161:4181
  324. Zhang X, Strobel DF, Imanaka H. 2017. Nature 551:7680352–55
  325. Zolotov MY. 2018. Rev. Mineral. Geochem. 84:1351–92
  326. Zsom A, Kaltenegger L, Goldblatt C. 2012. Icarus 221:2603–16
/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-astro-052920-125632
Loading
Atmospheres of Rocky Exoplanets
Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics 60, 159 (2022); https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-astro-052920-125632
/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-astro-052920-125632
/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-astro-052920-125632
Loading

Data & Media loading...

  • Article Type: Review Article

Most Cited Most Cited RSS feed

This is a required field
Please enter a valid email address
Approval was a Success
Invalid data
An Error Occurred
Approval was partially successful, following selected items could not be processed due to error