Abstract
We examined whether practice in an open skill video-game task would lead to changes in performance, attention, motivation, perceived effort, and theta, alpha, and beta waves. Specifically, we were interested on whether potential performance gains from practice would be primarily explained by the neural efficiency (i.e., cortical idling) or the neural proficiency hypothesis (i.e., mix of heightened and reduced activation across the cortex). To this end, we asked 16 novice participants (8 males and 8 females; Mage = 23.13 years) to play a Nintendo Wii video-game shooting task, namely Link’s Crossbow Training. Pre-test scores, which were followed by an acquisition phase, were compared to post-test scores. Performance and subjective data were recorded for each trial and EEG data was continuously recorded using the portable EEGO System. Our findings revealed that performance increased while attention decreased at post-test, thereby confirming that practice leads to performance gains and reduces attentional overload. No changes in motivation or perceived effort were observed, perhaps because effort is a gestalt multidimension construct and video-gaming is an inherently motivating activity. EEG frequency analysis revealed that, for the most part, performance gains were accompanied by increased cortical activity across frequencies bands, thus lending primary support to the neural proficiency hypothesis. Accordingly, neurofeedback interventions to aid motor learning should teach performers not only how to silence their brains (i.e., quiescence state linked to automaticity and “flow”) but also how to amplify task-relevant brain networks.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Acharya, J., Hani, A., Cheek, J., Thirumala, P., & Tsuchida, T. (2016). American clinical neurophysiology society guideline 2: Guidelines for standard electrode position nomenclature. Journal of Clinical Neurophysiology, 33(4), 308–311. https://doi.org/10.1097/wnp.0000000000000316
Appelbaum, M., Cooper, H., Kline, R. B., Mayo-Wilson, E., Nezu, A. M., & Rao, S. M. (2018). Journal article reporting standards for quantitative research in psychology: The APA Publications and Communications Board task force report. American Psychologist, 73(1), 3–25. https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000191
Babiloni, C., Del Percio, C., Iacoboni, M., Infarinato, F., Lizio, R., Marzano, N. … Eusebi, F. (2008). Golf putt outcomes are predicted by sensorimotor cerebral EEG rhythms. The Journal of Physiology, 586(1), 131–139. https://doi.org/10.1113/jphysiol.2007.141630
Babiloni, C., Infarinato, F., Marzano, N., Iacoboni, M., Dassu, F., Soricelli, A. … Percio, D., C (2011). Intra-hemispheric functional coupling of alpha rhythms is related to golfer’s performance: A coherence EEG Study. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 82(3), 260–268. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2011.09.008
Baumeister, J., Reinecke, K., Liesen, H., & Weiss, M. (2008). Cortical activity of skilled performance in a complex sports related motor task. European Journal of Applied Physiology, 104(4), 625–631. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00421-008-0811-x
Beniscelli, V., Tenenbaum, G., Schinke, R. J., & Torregrosa, M. (2014). Perceived distributed effort in team ball sports. Journal of Sports Sciences, 32(8), 710–721. https://doi.org/10.1080/02640414.2013.853131
Bertollo, M., di Fronso, S., Conforto, S., Schmid, M., Bortoli, L., Comani, S., & Robazza, C. (2016). Proficient brain for optimal performance: the MAP model perspective. PeerJ, 4, 1–26. https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.2082
Bertollo, M., Doppelmayr, M., & Robazza, C. (2020). Using brain technologies in practice. In G. Tenenbaum, & R. C. Eklund (Eds.), Handbook of sport psychology (pp. 666–693). John Wiley & Sons
Bortoli, L., Bertollo, M., Hanin, Y., & Robazza, C. (2012). Striving for excellence: A multi-action plan intervention model for shooters. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 13(5), 693–701. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2012.04.006
Cacioppo, J. T., Tassinary, L. G., & Berntson, G. G. (2007). Psychophysiological science: Interdisciplinary approaches to classic questions about the mind. In J. T. Cacioppo, L. G. Tassinary, & G. Berntson (Eds.), Handbook of psychophysiology (3rd ed., pp. 1–24). Cambridge University Press
Cheng, M., Hung, C., Huang, C., Chang, Y., Lo, L., Shen, C., & Hung, T. (2015). Expert-novice differences in SMR activity during dart throwing. Biological Psychology, 110, 212–218. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsycho.2015.08.003
Cheron, G., Petit, G., Cheron, J., Leroy, A., Cebolla, A., Cevallos, C. … Dan, B. (2016). Brain oscillations in sport: Toward EEG biomarkers of performance. Frontiers in Psychology, 7, 246. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00246
Cooke, A., Kavussanu, M., Gallicchio, G., Willoughby, A., McIntyre, D., & Ring, C. (2014). Preparation for action: Psychophysiological activity preceding a motor skill as a function of expertise, performance outcome, and psychological pressure. Psychophysiology, 51(4), 374–384. https://doi.org/10.1111/psyp.12182
Deeny, S., Haufler, A., Saffer, M., & Hatfield, B. (2009). Electroencephalographic coherence during visuomotor performance: A comparison of cortico-cortical communication in experts and novices. Journal of Motor Behavior, 41(2), 106–116. https://doi.org/10.3200/jmbr.41.2.106-116
Deeny, S. P., Hillman, C. H., Janelle, C. M., & Hatfield, B. D. (2003). Cortico-cortical communication and superior performance in skilled marksmen: An EEG coherence analysis. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 25(2), 188–204. https://doi.org/10.1123/jsep.25.2.188
Del Percio, C., Babiloni, C., Bertollo, M., Marzano, N., Iacoboni, M., Infarinato, F. … Eusebi, F. (2009). Visuo-attentional and sensorimotor alpha rhythms are related to visuo-motor performance in athletes. Human Brain Mapping, 30(11), 3527–3540. https://doi.org/10.1002/hbm.20776
Del Percio, C., Iacoboni, M., Lizio, R., Marzano, N., Infarinato, F., Vecchio, F. … Bablioni, C. (2011). Functional coupling of parietal alpha rhythms is enhanced in athletes before visuomotor performance: A coherence electroencephalographic study. Neuroscience, 175, 198–211. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroscience.2010.11.031
Di Fronso, S., Robazza, C., Filho, E., Bortoli, L., Comani, S., & Bertollo, M. (2016). Neural markers of performance states in an olympic athlete: An EEG case study in air-pistol shooting. Journal of Sports Science and Medicine, 15(2), 214–222
Ericsson, K. A. (2020). Towards a science of the acquisition of expert performance in sports: Clarifying the differences between deliberate practice and other types of practice. Journal of Sports Sciences, 38(2), 159–176. https://doi.org/10.1080/02640414.2019.1688618
Filho, E., Di Fronso, S., Robazza, C., & Bertollo, M. (2018). Exergaming. In S. Razon, & M. Sachs (Eds.), Applied exercise psychology: The challenging journey from motivation to adherence (pp. 122–134). Routledge
Filho, E., Dobersek, U., & Husselman, T. (2021). The role of neural efficiency, transient hypofrontality and neural proficiency in optimal performance in self-paced sports: a meta-analytic review. Experimental Brain Research, 239(5), 1381–1393. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00221-021-06078-9
Glen, K., Eston, R., Loetscher, T., & Parfitt, G. (2017). Exergaming: Feels good despite working harder. Plos One, 12(10), https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0186526. Article e0186526
Hair, J. Jr., Black, W. C., Babin, B. J., & Anderson, R. E. (2019). Multivariate data analysis (7th ed., p. 66). Pearson Education Limited
Hatfield, B. D. (2018). Brain dynamics and motor behavior: A case for efficiency and refinement for superior performance. Kinesiology Review, 7(1), 42–50. https://doi.org/10.1123/kr.2017-0056
Hatfield, B. D., Jaquess, K. J., Lo, L. C., & Oh, H. (2020). The cognitive and affective neuroscience of superior athletic performance. In G. Tenenbaum, & R. C. Eklund (Eds.), Handbook of sport psychology (pp. 487–512). John Wiley & Sons. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119568124.ch23
Hoyle, B., Taylor, J., Zugic, L., & Filho, E. (2020). Coordination cost and super-efficiency in teamwork: The role of communication, psychological states, cardiovascular responses, and brain rhythms. Applied Psychophysiology and Biofeedback, 45(4), 323–341. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10484-020-09479-8
Hsieh, L. T., Ekstrom, A. D., & Ranganath, C. (2011). Neural oscillations associated with item and temporal order maintenance in working memory. Journal of Neuroscience, 31(30), 10803–10810. https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.0828-11.2011
Hutchinson, J. C., & Tenenbaum, G. (2006). Perceived effort—Can it be considered gestalt? Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 7, 463–476. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2006.01.007
Janssens, C., De Loof, E., Boehler, C. N., Pourtois, G., & Verguts, T. (2018). Occipital alpha power reveals fast attentional inhibition of incongruent distractors. Psychophysiology, 55(3), e13011. https://doi.org/10.1111/psyp.13011
Jensen, O., & Tesche, C. D. (2002). Frontal theta activity in humans increases with memory load in a working memory task. European journal of Neuroscience, 15(8), 1395–1399. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1460-9568.2002.01975.x
Kim, K. H., Bang, S. W., & Kim, S. R. (2004). Emotion recognition system using short-term monitoring of physiological signals. Medical and Biological Engineering and Computing, 42(3), 419–427. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02344719
Li, S., Jin, J. N., Wang, X., Qi, H. Z., Liu, Z. P., & Yin, T. (2017). Theta and alpha oscillations during the retention period of working memory by rTMS stimulating the parietal lobe. Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience, 11, 170. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnbeh.2017.00170
Masters, R., & Maxwell, J. (2008). The theory of reinvestment. International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 1(2), 160–183. https://doi.org/10.1080/17509840802287218
Meltzer, J. A., Zaveri, H. P., Goncharova, I. I., Distasio, M. M., Papademetris, X., Spencer, S. S. … Constable, R. T. (2008). Effects of working memory load on oscillatory power in human intracranial EEG. Cerebral Cortex, 18(8), 1843–1855. https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/bhm213
Milton, J., Solodkin, A., Hluštík, P., & Small, S. (2007). The mind of expert motor performance is cool and focused. Neuroimage, 35(2), 804–813. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2007.01.003
Neubauer, A. C., & Fink, A. (2009). Intelligence and neural efficiency. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 33(7), 1004–1023. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2009.04.001
Pacheco, N. C. (2016). Neurofeedback for peak performance training. Journal of Mental Health Counseling, 38(2), 116–123. https://doi.org/10.17744/mehc.38.2.03
Palmer, C., Zapparoli, L., & Kilner, J. M. (2016). A new framework to explain sensorimotor beta oscillations. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 20(5), 321–323. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2016.03.007
Persky, A. M., & Robinson, J. D. (2017). Moving from novice to expertise and its implications for instruction. American Journal of Pharmaceutical Education, 81(9), 72–80. https://doi.org/10.5688/ajpe6065
Ruiz, M. C., Raglin, J. S., & Hanin, Y. L. (2017). The individual zones of optimal functioning (IZOF) model (1978–2014): Historical overview of its development and use. International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 15(1), 41–63. https://doi.org/10.1080/1612197X.2015.1041545
Schmidt, R., & Lee, T. (2019). Motor learning and performance 6th edition with web study guide-loose-leaf edition: From principles to application. Human Kinetics Publishers
Stone, D. B., Tamburro, G., Filho, E., Di Fronso, S., Robazza, C., Bertollo, M., & Comani, S. (2019). Hyperscanning of interactive juggling: expertise influence on source level functional connectivity. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 13, 321. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2019.00321
Tenenbaum, G., Basevitch, I., Gershgoren, L., & Filho, E. (2013). Emotions–decision-making in sport: Theoretical conceptualization and experimental evidence. International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 11(2), 151–168. https://doi.org/10.1080/1612197X.2013.773687
Tenenbaum, G., & Filho, E. (2015). Measurement considerations in performance psychology. In M. Raab, B. Lobinger, S. Hoffmann, A. Pizzera, & S. Laborde (Eds.), Performance psychology: Perception, action, cognition, and emotion (pp. 31–44). Elsevier
Tenenbaum, G., & Filho, E. (2018). Psychosocial measurement issues in sport and exercise settings. Oxford research encyclopedia of psychology. Oxford University Press
Tesche, C. D., & Karhu, J. (2000). Theta oscillations index human hippocampal activation during a working memory task. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 97(2), 919–924. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.97.2.919
Vecchio, F., Del Percio, C., & Babiloni, C. (2012). Is there a neural efficiency in the athlete’s brain? International Journal of Psychophysiology, 3(85), 296–297. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2012.06.022
Vickers, J. N., & Williams, A. M. (2017). The role of mental processes in elite sports performance. In Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Psychology. https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190236557.013.161
Wang, C. H., Tsai, C. L., Tseng, P., Yang, A. C., Lo, M. T., Peng, C. K. … Liang, W. K. (2014). The association of physical activity to neural adaptability during visuo-spatial processing in healthy elderly adults: A multiscale entropy analysis. Brain and Cognition, 92 C, 73–83. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bandc.2014.10.006
Whitmarsh, S., Gitton, C., Jousmäki, V., Sackur, J., & Tallon-Baudry, C. (2020). Distinct neural variables underlie subjective reports of attention. bioRxiv. https://doi.org/10.1101/2020.01.23.916841
Wu, S., Cheng, C. K., Feng, J., D’Angelo, L., Alain, C., & Spence, I. (2012). Playing a first-person shooter video game induces neuroplastic change. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 24(6), 1286–1293. https://doi.org/10.1162/jocn_a_00192
Yin, D., & Kaiser, M. (2021). Understanding neural flexibility from a multifaceted definition. Neuroimage, 235, 118027. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2021.118027
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Additional information
Publisher’s Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Filho, E., Husselman, TA., Zugic, L. et al. Performance Gains in an Open Skill Video-Game Task: The Role of Neural Efficiency and Neural Proficiency. Appl Psychophysiol Biofeedback 47, 239–251 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10484-022-09553-3
Received:
Revised:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10484-022-09553-3