Race and Social Class as Intersecting Social Categories
An Analysis of Implicit and Explicit Attitudes
Abstract
Abstract. Race and social class are inherently confounded; however, much of the literature focuses on only one of these categories at a time during attitude assessment. Across three studies, we examined the influence of race and social class on implicit and explicit attitudes. Results indicated that participants had more positive attitudes toward high social class White and high social class Black people than low social class White and low social class Black people. Attitudes for high social class White versus high social class Black people and low social class White versus low social class Black people were more nuanced and attitude/measure dependent. Thus, this research highlights the intricacy of attitudes when considering intersectional categories.
References
2012). Reporting intentional rating of the primes predicts priming effects in the affective misattribution procedure. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 38(9), 1194–1208. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167212446835
(1956). Race-class stereotypes. Journal of Negro Education, 25(1), 2575–2578. https://doi.org/10.2307/2293141
(2016). Polluting black space. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 145(11), 1548–1560. https://doi.org/2101/10.1037/xge0000226
(2020). Invisible middle‐class Black space: Asymmetrical person and space stereotyping at the race-class nexus. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 23(1), 24–47. https://doi.org/10.1177/1368430218784189
(2019). Wealthy Whites and poor Blacks: Implicit associations between racial groups and wealth predict explicit opposition toward helping the poor. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 82, 26–34. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2018.11.006
(2017). The relationship between mental representations of welfare recipients and attitudes toward welfare. Psychological Science, 28(1), 92–103. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797616674999
(2009). Intersectionality and research in psychology. American Psychologist, 64(3), 170–180. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0014564
(2003). Race, Class and the Dilemmas of Upward Mobility for African Americans. Journal of Social Issues, 59(4), 785–802. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.0022-4537.2003.00090.x
(1991). Measurement of racial stereotype subtyping. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 17(1), 44–50. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167291171007
(2007). G*Power 3: A flexible statistical power analysis program for the social, behavioral, and biomedical sciences. Behavior Research Methods, 39(2), 175–191. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03193146
(1974). Stereotype attribution revisited: The role of stimulus characteristics, racial attitude, and cognitive differentiation. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 1(1), 62–65. https://doi.org/10.1177/014616727400100121
(2002). A model of (often mixed) stereotype content: Competence and warmth respectively follow from perceived status and competition. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 82(6), 878–902. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.82.6.878
(2011). Looking the part: Social status cues shape race perception. PLoS One, 6(9), Article e25107. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0025107
(1998). Measuring individual differences in implicit cognition: The Implicit Association Test. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74(6), 1464–1480. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.74.6.1464
(2003). Understanding and using the Implicit Association Test: I. An improved scoring algorithm. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85(2), 197–216. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.85.2.197
(2009). On assessing the political effects of racial prejudice. Annual Review of Political Science, 12(1), 423–447. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.polisci.11.062906.070752
(1987). The nature of stereotypes: A comparison and integration of three theories. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52(3), 536–546. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.52.3.536
(2005). The effects of race and socioeconomic status on implicit and explicit stereotypes. Dissertation Abstracts International, 65, Article 6091.
(2016). White ≠ LSC: Whites distance, derogate, and deny low-status ingroup members. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 42(2), 230–243. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167215623270
(2017). Racial assumptions color the mental representation of social class. Frontiers in Psychology, 8.
(2013, December 19). The Welfare Queen. http://www.slate.com/articles/news_and_politics/history/2013/12/linda_taylor_welfare_queen_ronald_reagan_made_her_a_notorious_american_villain.html
(2019). Implicit evaluative biases toward targets varying in race and socioeconomic status. Personality & Social Psychology Bulletin, 45(10), 1512–1527. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167219835230
(2017). How social status shapes person perception and evaluation: A social neuroscience perspective. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 12(3), 468–507. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691616677828
(2004). An examination of racial subtypes versus subgroups. Current Research in Social Psychology, 9(8), 1–15.
(2018). An intersectional approach to understanding how race and social class affect intergroup processes. Social Psychology and Personality Compass, 13(1), Article e12426. https://doi.org/10.1111/spc3.12426
(2017). Quick to the draw: How suspect race and socioeconomic status influences shooting decisions. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 47(9), 482–491. https://doi.org/10.1111/jasp.12454
(2005). Understanding and using the Implicit Association Test: II. Method variables and construct validity. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 31(2), 166–180. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167204271418
(2011). Implicit social cognition: From measures to mechanisms. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 15(4), 152–159. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2011.01.005
(2005). An inkblot for attitudes: Affect misattribution as implicit measurement. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 89(3), 277–293. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.89.3.277
(2008). Automatic attitudes and alcohol: Does implicit liking predict drinking? Cognition and Emotion, 22(2), 238–271. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699930701357394
(2008). How social status shapes race. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 105(50), 19628–19630. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0805762105
(2008). Differential relations between two types of contact and implicit and explicit racial attitudes. British Journal of Social Psychology, 47(4), 575–588. https://doi.org/10.1348/014466607x267470
(1978). Evaluative race-class stereotypes by race and perceived class of subjects. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 36(5), 530–535. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.36.5.530
(1992). Categorization of individuals on the basis of multiple social features. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 62(2), 207–218. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.62.2.207
(2002). Racial ambiguity among the Brazilian population. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 25(3), 415–441. https://doi.org/10.1080/01419870252932133
(2016). https://factfinder.census.gov/faces/nav/jsf/pages/index.xhtml
. (2004). Complicating race: The relationship between prejudice, race, and social class categorizations. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 30(8), 972–984. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167204264751
(